Welcome to C++ Programming Language

Course Description

Course using C++ introducing concepts of software development, object-oriented event-driven programming, testing and debugging, simple and complex data types language syntax and semantics. Prerequisite: None.

Student Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:

(1.) Demonstrate best practices for designing end-user computing interfaces.

(2.) Discuss software development methodologies.

(3.) Use a programming or a scripting language to solve a problem.

(4.) Discuss significant trends and emerging technologies and their impact on our global society.

Vocabulary Words

vary, variable, identifier, data type, data value, value, container, ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Exchange), character (char), signed character, integer (int), signed integer, unsigned integer, short int, long int, long long int, float, double, long double, bool, void, decltype (nullptr), size, storage, precision

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss the meaning of variables in C++
(2.) Discuss the data types in C++
(3.) Discuss the rules for using identifiers.
(4.) Write C++ programs that involves the use of variables and data types.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Tutorials by cplusplus.com: Variables and types to Constants
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/variables/)

(3.) Tutorials by w3schools:
C++ Variablesto C++ Data Types
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_variables.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Variables and/or C++ Data Types in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Variables and/or C++ Data Types in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

A Variable is a portion of computer memory for storing a data value.
Because a variable stores a data value, it is important to identify the type of data value it stores.
This implies that any variable is associated with a data type.
The data type describes the type of data value stored by the variable.
What type of data is being stored? Are they numeric (numbers), non-numeric (letters/characters/words), etc.?
As noted with the word: variable, any value stored by it can vary (can change).
A variable is created/declared in C++ by specifying the data type associated with it and assigning it to a value.
We declare a variable this way:
datatype variable = value
The equal sign is the assignment statement.
In other words, you assign something in C++ using the equal sign.
Let us review the main data types in C++.

Here is the Complete description of these data types, sizes, and precision
(https://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/variables/)

C++ variables are identified with unique names known as idenfiers.
It is important to use identifiers that are meaningful and descriptive.
Anyone reviewing your program should not have to guess the meaning of your variable.

As you can see (based on the image below: Variables, Data Types, Values (Code)):
The variables I used in that example are meaningful and descriptive
Those variables are:
state to denote the State of Ohio, OH
numState to denote the number of the State of Ohio in an alphabetical listing of the state names
povertyRate to denote the poverty rate of Ohions according to the $2000$ census data
landArea to denote the land area of the Ohio according to the $2000$ census data
motto to denote the motto and seal of the Great State of Ohio
ismottoTrue to denote the Boolean data type if the motto is true
Even without the comments, you already have an idea of the meaning of my variables.
I should not have to guess the meaning of your variables.

Naming Variables
Variable names:
(1.) Can be single letters (please avoid unless if used in loops)

(2.) Can contain a combination of letters, digits, and underscores but must not begin with a number.
It may begin with a letter or an underscore.
(a.) Please avoid underscores
Avoid underscores even if the variable name does not begin with an underscore.
(b.) Use a combination of letters and digits such as:
num1 to represent the first number
variable1 to represent the first number

(3.) Can contain only letters but must not be any of the reserved keywords.
The reserved keywords are:
alignas, alignof, and, and_eq, asm, auto, bitand, bitor, bool, break, case, catch, char, char16_t, char32_t, class, compl, const, constexpr, const_cast, continue, decltype, default, delete, do, double, dynamic_cast, else, enum, explicit, export, extern, false, float, for, friend, goto, if, inline, int, long, mutable, namespace, new, noexcept, not, not_eq, nullptr, operator, or, or_eq, private, protected, public, register, reinterpret_cast, return, short, signed, sizeof, static, static_assert, static_cast, struct, switch, template, this, thread_local, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid, typename, union, unsigned, using, virtual, void, volatile, wchar_t, while, xor, xor_eq

(a.) The letters can be Camel case (similar to the hump of a camel) such as:
firstVariable...the V is the hump
In Camel casing letters: two letters are merged as one; the first letter of the second word is an uppercase letter while all other letters are lower case letters.
In firstVariable, V is uppercase; all other letters are lower case
(b.) The letters can be Pascal case such as FirstVariable
In Pascal casing, two letters are merged as one; the first letter of the first word and the first letter of the second word are uppercase letters while all other letters are lower case letters.
In FirstVariable, F and V are uppercase; all other letters are lowercase.
(c.) uppercase letters (please avoid...it denotes someone who is yelling)
(d.) lowercase letters (okay, but try to avoid)

Student: What if you have three words?
How do you write it in Camel case? Pascal case?
Teacher: Say we want to write the variable, first arithmetic sequence
Camel case: firstArithmeticSequence...A and S are the only uppercase
Pascal case: FirstArithmeticSequence...F, A, S are the only uppercase

In this course, for all applicable variables; please use:
(i.) A combination of letters and digits such as num1 OR
(ii.) Camel case letters such as firstNumber OR
(iii.) Pascal case letters such as FirstNumber
***We shall use single characters when we write condtiions for Iteration statements/Loops because it is easier to use single characters in such cases. We shall see examples when we discuss loops. However, feel free not to use it if you wish.***

(4.) Cannot contain whitespaces or special characters.
The special characters are all the non-numeric and non-alphabet characters on your keyboard such as ~ (tilde), !(exclamation), @ (asperand), # (hash), $ (dollar), % (percent), ^ (caret), & (ampersand), * (asterisk).
A whitespace is a horizontal or vertical space.
For example: myNum has no whitespace; but my Num has a whitespace.
Variable names cannot contain whitespaces.
Hence: myNum is acceptable, but my Num is not acceptable.

Declaring Read-Only Variables: Use the const keyword (constant keyword)
As we have learned, a variable vary. The value changes.
However, read-only variables do not change.
Sometimes, we need these kind of variables.
We have to create/declare them using the const keyword.
For example, if we want to use the approximate value of pi as $3.142$ rather than using the exact value, we can declare it as:
const int $piValue = 3.142$
This means that the variable, piValue is a read-only variable
It will not change it's value.

Student: May you please give code examples?
Teacher: Sure.
Let us review these two examples.



Line #18: the variable piValue2 cannot be changed because it was declared as a read-only variable (using the const keyword)

(5.) Are case sensitive.
These are all different variables:
firstresult (lowercase), firstResult (Camel case), FirstResult (Pascal case), Firstresult, FIRSTRESULT (uppercase), first_result (snake case)

Let us review more variable examples in C++
A variable can store the number, say 5 in a line of code; and the same variable can store a different number, say 7 in another line of code.
So, the values stored by a variable can change.

An example with integers:


An example with strings:


Variables, Data Types, Values:

Some Substantive Posts

(1.) Using at least five complete sentences and at least three different variables and data types, write a program of the summary of what you learned in this module.

(2.) Write a program of a short story or a poem using at least five sentences and at least three different variables and data types.

(3.) Write a program of a short story, a poem, or drama using at least five sentences, the same variable, and at least three different data types.

(4.) To be done by only one student on a first-come first-served basis
Assume you have three initials.
Write a program that declares variables to hold your three initials.
Display the three initials with a period following each one, for example: $S.D.C$

(5.) Review the output of the example code of: Variables, Data Types, Values.
The user wants the last sentence to be true rather than 1
What does that say about Boolean data types?
What are the only values that can be assigned to it?
What are the only values that can be returned?
What does each return value indicate based on the assigned value?

(6.) Review the example code of: Variables, Data Types, Values.
Look at Line Numbers #39 and #40
Both outputs are displayed in new lines. However, they were written differently.
Explain the difference.
What is the plus sign on Line #40 called?
( Hint: If the data type was not a string, would you be able to use the plus sign in that regard?)

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) Provide any of these details if they are lacking in any DB post:
Well-written comments; another approach/method to solving the question; any additional relevant details; etc.

(2.) Review the post (Discuss Questions and Assess Questions) done by your colleagues.
If your colleague developed a console application for a program, develop a desktop application for the same program.
If your colleague developed a desktop application for a program, develop a console application for the same program.

(3.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

(1.) Textbook: Question (24.) on Pages 110 - 111

(2.) Review the example code of: Variables, Data Types, Values.
Line #25 displayed the value of the double data type as 40860.69
However, the output displayed the value as 40860.7
Explain the issue.
Write the program and fix the issue.

(3.) Develop a Graphical User Interface (GUI) of a short story, a poem, or drama using at least five sentences and at least five different variables and data types.
At least three buttons: the button that displays the information, the Clear button and the Exit button should be included.

(4.) Develop a Graphical User Interface of a short story, a poem, or drama using at least five sentences, the same variable, and at least three different data types.
At least three buttons: the button that displays the information, the Clear button and the Exit button should be included.

Vocabulary Words

operator, operation, operand, operator precedence, number, byte, short, long, integer, float, double, decimal, standard input stream (cin), standard output stream (cout), insertion operator (<<), extraction operator (>>), operators, assignment operator, arithmetic operators, compound assignment operators, increment operator, decrement operator, relational and comparison operators, logical operators, conditional ternary operator, comma operator, bitwise operators, explicit type casting operator, sizeof operator, function, parameter, <cmath> library, <iomanip> rounding numbers, setprecision, printf, round, ceil, floor, trunc, nearbyint, rint

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss the operators in C++
(2.) Perform operations on variables/values.
(3.) Write C++ programs involving the use of operators.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Tutorials by cplusplus.com: Operators and Basic Input/Output
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/operators/)

(3.) Tutorials by w3schools: C++ Operators and C++ Math
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_operators.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Numbers and/or C++ Operators in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Numbers and/or C++ Operators in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

Operators

Operators are special symbols that perform specific operations on one or more operands, and returns an output.
An Operand is the variable/value on which an operation is done.

Review the rest of the Operators

Let us review more examples of Arithmetic Operators and Math Functions.

A Simple Arithmetic Operation of Two Integers:


Teacher: Did you notice the quotient?
Student: Yes, Sir. I did.
That result is incorrect.
Teacher: Yes, it is.
Any suggestions?
Student: I think it is because it was declared as an integer.
Teacher: Correct.
How do we fix it?
Student: Declare it as a float?
Teacher: Let's see



Teacher: That fixed it.
But, what if we declared as a double type?
Student: That should work also, I guess?
Teacher: Let's see



Teacher: That fixed it as well.
However, which one is better: declaring as the float type or double type?
Student: Does it really matter?
Teacher: If the output is a repeating or non-terminating decimal, it does.
Student: In that case, I think the double type is better because it allows for more decimal places.
Teacher: In other words, the double type has a greater precision than the float type.
Student: Yes, Sir.
Teacher: The god programming practice would be to declare the two operand variables: num1 and num2 as integers (because that is what they are) and to declare the output variables (result of each operation) as double data types.

Because the double data type has a greater precision that the float data type, we shall be using the double data type going forward.

Let us review more examples.

Please visit the Numbers website
(www.numbersandnotations.appspot.com/numbers.html)
Let us solve Question (10.) on that website using only Arithmetic Operators:


Student: That is pretty straightforward.
However, what about the green line under the operation?
Teacher: The green line is a warning.
It is not an error.
It is not an issue for now.
Point your mouse at it, review it and do some research on it. "Bing" it, or "Google" it
We can discuss it later.
Student: No, Mr. C
You said we should avoid all warnings and errors in our code.
I guess you just want to give me extra work to figure it out.
Teacher: No worries. Let us fix it.
What is the message displayed by the IDE?
Student: C26451 Arithmetic overflow: Using operator '-' on a 4 byte value and then casting the result to a 8 byte value. Cast the value to the wider type before calling operator '-' to avoid overflow (io.2)


Teacher: Casting to an 8-byte value is to use the long data type.
Let us declare it with the long data type.

Here is the fixed code:


Student: When do we know whether to declare it as long or as double?
Teacher: When you receive such warning.
Student: Is there any way we can declare it as double without having that warning?
I've just got used to double.
Teacher: Yes.
Let us use C++ Math functions: the <cmath> library
We shall use the double data type and the Math functions and the code should work fine without any warning.

Let us solve Question (10.) on that website using Arithmetic Operators and Math Functions:


Student: Pretty cool.
Teacher: Yes, we used the C++ Math functions in this example.
Hence, we included the <cmath> library.
There are more C++ math functions.

Please see the Complete list of C++ Math Functions
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/cmath/)

Let us review a case where the answer needs to be rounded.
There are several ways of rounding numbers in C++
They include:
(1.) Using the setprecision function.
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/iomanip/setprecision/)
This function sets the decimal precision to be used to format floating-point values on output operations.
It accepts one parameter: the new value for the decimal precision.
The value for the parameter is "kinda" tricky.
Say:
the result is 3.157; to round to one decimal place, set the value of the parameter to 2 (setprecision(2))
the result is 3.157; to round to two decimal places, set the value of the parameter to 3 (setprecision(3))
the result is 37.157; to round to one decimal place, set the value of the parameter to 3 (setprecision(3))
the result is 37.157; to round to two decimal places, set the value of the parameter to 4 (setprecision(4))
In other words, the value of the parameter should include the number (count) of the digits before the decimal place and the number of decimal places that the decimal should be rounded to.
To use this function, the Input/Output Manipulators: <iomanip> library must be included in the header.

(2.) Using the Print Formatted:function: printf
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/cstdio/printf/)
This function prints formatted data to the standard output (stdout).
To use this function, there is no need to include the <cmath> or <iomanip> library.
Typically, it follows this format: %[flags][width][.precision][length]specifier
The precision is the number of places to round the number (the number of decimal places after the decimal).
Did you notice that the meaning of precision using printf is different from the meaning of precision using setprecision?

It has the same functionality as the standard output stream, cout in that it displays the output, but a formatted output.
This implies that: in the same line of code, we do not use the cout command when we use the printf function.
Keep in mind that the cout command can also display formatted output.

(3.) Using other <cmath> library rounding functions.
These include:
(a.) The Floor function: floor : Round Down
It rounds the number downward, returning the largest integral value that is not greater than the number.
(Compare to the floor of a room).

(b.) The Ceil function: ceil : Round Up
It rounds the number upward, returning the smallest integral value that is not less than number.
(Compare to the ceiling of a room).

(c.) The Round function: round : Round Nearest
It returns the integral value that is nearest to number, with halfway cases rounded away from zero.

(d.) The Truncate function: trunc : Truncate value
It rounds the number toward zero, returning the nearest integral value that is not larger in magnitude than the number.

Let us demonstrate some of these appraoches to rounding numbers.
Please visit the Percent Applications website
(www.fractions-decimals-percents.appspot.com/percentApplications.html)
Let us solve Question (1.) on that website
In this example, let us use several variables to solve the question.



We can solve the same question using only one variable.
In this case, we have to use Compound Assignment Operators
Let us solve Question (1.) on that website using Compound Assignment Operators:



Student: Mr. C
Did you use the <cmath> library in those two examples?
Teacher: I did not.
Student: So, why include it?
Teacher: Good question.
You must not include it because we did not use it.
But, this is a general advice:
Anytime you are writing C++ code to solve a Math problem, it is better to include it should you use a Math function
But, in those two examples; it is proper not to include it.
Student: How did you underline the words in the Console window?
The codes you used...
Teacher: Yes, the codes underline words in the Console window
They work for C++ and C# console window applications
You can also add foreground and background colors.
This is the List of the Console Log Formatting Commands
(https://www.samdomforpeace.com/References/ASCII.html#console)
\x1B[4m command underlines the text in the console.
\x1B[0m command resets it (closes the underlined text).
It is important to reset it, else it will underline the entire text in the console.
If you add foreground and background colors, it is also important to reset.

Input/Output Feature

One of the nice features of the C++ langauge is the input/output feature.
This feature is interactive.
You use this input/output feature in several applications.
A common application is whereby you are required to verify your identity by inputting your first name, last name, date of birth, etc.
Let us demonstrate the input/output feature with numbers so we see how it works.
Notice that: we use the standard output stream: : cout and the extraction operator: << to request the user input
and we use the standard input stream: : cin and the insertion operator: : >> to store the user input.

C++ Input/Output Feature for Arithmetic Operations and Math Functions



We can solve this question using a better efficient approach: using the getline function and the stringstream type.
The stringstream feature is useful for converting strings to numerical values and vice versa.
It is accessed by including the header library, <<sstream>>
We shall include the <<string>> library as well.
Let use this feature to solve the same question.



Student: May you please let me know how this approach is better than the first approach?
Teacher: Using this approach, the numeric values are acquired from the standard input indirectly.
Instead of extracting numeric values directly from cin (using the first approach), we get lines from it into a string object (userString), and then we extract the values from this string into the variables: firstNum, secondNum, thirdNum.
Using this approach of getting entire lines and extracting their contents, we separate the process of getting user input from its interpretation as data.
This allows for the input process to be what the user expects, and at the same time gain more control over the transformation of its content into useful data by the program.

Application of Input/Output Feature: BMI (Body Mass Index)

Please review the BMI information on these two government websites [from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)]
About Adult BMI | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC and
Calculate Your BMI - Standard BMI Calculator

As at today, the 3rd day of September, 2020; the BMI information on both websites are:

NIH website
Calculate Your BMI - Standard BMI Calculator


CDC website
About Adult BMI | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC

Formula for Calculating Body Mass Index: United States System (Customary System)

$ BMI = \left(\dfrac{weight}{height * height}\right) * 703 \\[5ex] weight\:\:is\:\:in\:\:pounds (lb) \\[3ex] height\:\:is\:\:in\:\:inches (in) $

Formula for Calculating Body Mass Index: International System (Metric System)

$ BMI = \left(\dfrac{weight}{height * height}\right) \\[5ex] weight\:\:is\:\:in\:\:kilograms (kg) \\[3ex] height\:\:is\:\:in\:\:meters (m) \\[3ex] $ If you need help with conversion of units, please review the Tables and Examples in Measurements and Units

Teacher: What do you notice in both websites?
Student: They both have the information on the BMI.
In addition, the CDC website has information for both Adult BMI and Child & Teen BMI among others.
The NIH website has recommendations among others.
Teacher: That is correct. What else?
Student: They have the BMI calculator.
Teacher: Did you notice any difference in the calculator on both websites?
Student: The NIH website has BMI calculator for both Standard and Metric versions.
The CDC website has the BMI calculator for only the Metric version.
Teacher: Did you notice any issue/concern about the BMI information?
Student: Not really. Why?
Teacher: So, this is what we are going to do.
Let us develop the BMI calculator.
That calculator will calculate the BMI.
Then, we shall interpret that BMI, and make a recommendation.
. The CDC website gave us the formula for calculating the BMI. So, we shall use it.
As you can see, our calculator would have to use conditional statements for the interpretation and recommendation.
But, here is the issue.
Student: Wait, I think I see the issue.
The issue is with the domains.
Teacher: Correct!
Anyone having a BMI between $18.5$ and $24.9$ both endpoints included has a Normal weight.
This is: Normal weight: [18.5, 24.9]. It is a closed interval (relate with Mathematics).
So, the Overweight range for the BMI should be the weight greater than $24.9$, (rather than beginning from $25$) and ending at $29.9$
For the Overweight range, the first endpoint is not included, but the second endpoint is included.
This is: Overweight: (24.9, 29.9]. It is a half-open half-closed interval (relate with Mathematics)
Teacher: Do you know why this would be a problem if the programmer does not fix these issues before developing the calculator?
Student: Yes. Because there would not be any interpretation for anyone whose BMI is between $24.9$ and $25$
But, I do see that the BMI information is for values rounded to one decimal place.
Teacher: That is correct.
And we shall develop our calculator to round to one decimal place.
But, it is important we fix the issues.
What if we do not want to round?
Look at the two examples on the CDC website. The BMI values were rounded to two decimal places.
If we developed our calculator to round to two decimal places with the information on those websites "as is"; then we would not have the interpretation and recommendation for those two examples ($24.98$ and $24.96$) because those values are greater than $24.9$ but less than $25$.
Student: That makes sense.
So, the last one: Obese should be BMI greater than $29.9$, rather than greater than $30$?
Teacher: That is correct.

Let us apply what we learned so far.
We shall develop a console application and a desktop application for the Body Mass Index (BMI) calculator.
I do the console application.
You do the desktop application.
We are yet to cover Statements (covered in Module 5). However, do not worry.
I explained my comments very well. You will understand the comments.
Please ask questions if you do not understand any of the comments.
We shall use part of Module 5 (Decision-making statements) in the program.
Please review the screenshots and the comments.

(1.) The program should accept user inputs of:
(I.) First name
(II.) Last name
(III.) Weight
(IV. Height

(2.) The program should output the:
(A.) BMI value
(B.) Interpretation
(C.) Recommendation

(3.) The program should address user-input errors of non-positive numbers for the weight and the height.
Inform the user.
Then, exit the program. Do not allow the program to continue.
To exit the program, we use the command: exit(0);
Logical AND in C++ is represented by the double ampersand symbol &&
Logical OR in C++ is represented by the double pipe symbol ||

Student: I have several questions, Mr. C
Teacher: Please go ahead
Student: First Question: Why did you initialize those variables?
The interpretBMI and the adviceBMI...you initialized them to empty strings
Teacher: Good question.
Assume we did not initialize them
We only defined them within the block of code: the If Statement
Then, we want to print them/output them outside the block of code
The program "will not be happy"
Compare it to this scenario.
A student registered to attend a school.
We did not register the student at the front office registration desk.
But we sent the student to a classroom and the classroom teacher registered that student.
The parents come, looking for their child.
Where will the parent go first?
Student: At the front desk of course
Teacher: Good.
The front desk will first keep a record of the student before sending the student to the class.
We have to first assign the string to something before we send it to the blocks of code, and then output it.
We cannot just declare it without an assignment, then send it to a block of code to be used within that block of code only, and then want to output it outside the block of code.
Does it make sense?
Student: Yes, it does.
But what if we do not want to print the value outside the block of code?
What if we want to print the value inside each block of code where it is used?
Teacher: I am impressed by your questions.
Yes, we can do that.
But you know what that means...right?
Student: We have to write it each time for each of the conditional statement.
Teacher: That is correct.
Student: Second Question: Why did you underline the 0 on the console window?
....process exited with 0?
Teacher: Unless defined in the program otherwise; anytime you run a program and the program exited with 0, it means that the program successfully exited.
0 basically lets you know that the program ended successfully.

Some Substantive Posts

For Questions (1.) and (2.); please review the other C++ operators
Using code examples and well-written comments for each operator, discuss any of these operators.

(1.) Logical Operators

(2.) Bitwise Operators

(3.) Visit the Numbers website
(www.numbersandnotations.appspot.com/numbers.html)
Choose any applicable question and write a C++ program to solve it.
Please make sure that the output of your program gives the same result as the solution of the question on my website.
You may use Arithmetic Operators, Math Functions, or both.

(4.) Visit the Percent Applications website
(www.fractions-decimals-percents.appspot.com/percentApplications.html)
Choose any applicable question and write a C++ program to solve it.
Please make sure that the output of your program gives the same result as the solution of the question on my website.
You may use Arithmetic Operators, Math Functions, or both.

For Questions (4.) and (5.), please see the code (image) below:
Arithmetic Operators; Increment and Decrement Operators:


(5.) There is no problem with the code as indicated by the bottom right message "No Issues found".
However, the user is confused with the output.
Explain to the user, the code and the output.
Try to clear any confusion the user have. What changes will you make?
Are there any questions you would ask the user? What are those questions?
Assume different answers the user may give, and provide suggestions.

(6.) The user wants to apply the incremental operator to num1 and the decremental operator to num2 before applying the arithmetic operators.
How would you fix it? Fix it.
Keep in mind that the user wants a well-written output.

(7.) Please see the code (image) below:
C++ Input/Output Feature for Arithmetic Operations and Math Functions.


How would you check for the user error, a12.e8 in your program?
What are your suggestions?

(8.) Can you declare the float or double type variables for the modulo operation?
Give reasons for your answer. Use code examples and submit screenshots the code and the outputs.

(9.) Please review the Precedence of operators
(https://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/operators/)
Using code examples, demonstrate all the operators and the operations are executed using the precedence of operators. (10.) Program to determine your age
***Because your age is a PII (Personal Identifiable Information), you may use a fictitious age. However, you need to test it (privately) with your actual age to make sure it works.***
Develop a C++ program to determine your age based on these instructions.
ONLY one variable is required.
(Hint: If only one variable is required, this implies that you need to use Compound Assignment operators)
The user wants you to note that these instructions would only work for ages determined this year, and wants you to specify it in the program.
(a.) Pick an integer between 0 and 10 (0 and 10 exclusive).
(b.) Multiply the integer by two.
(c.) Add five to the result.
(d.) Multiply the result by fifty.
(e.) If you already had your birthday this year, add the result to one thousand, seven hundred and seventy-two. If you have not had your birthday this year, add the result to one thousand, seven hundred and seventy-one. (valid for 2022, adjust accordingly after 2022)
(f.) Subtract your four-digit birth year from the result.
Run the code and display the output.
Explain your result.

(11.) A client wants you to develop a program to calculate the age of his child.
The instructions for the previous question still applies to this question.
However, in this case; the program will give the instructions to the child, and the child will respond.
This program is an Input/Output program.
This implies that the cout (standard output stream) and cin (standard input stream) will be used.
Develop a C++ program for this child.

(12.) Program to determine your date of birth.
***Because your date of birth is a PII (Personal Identifiable Information), you may use a fictitious age. However, you need to test it (privately) with your actual age to make sure it works. Develop a C++ program to determine your date of birth based on these instructions.***
ONLY one variable is required.
(Hint: If only one variable is required, this implies that you need to use Compound Assignment operators).
(a.) Pick the integer that is your month of birth.
(b.) Multiply the integer by two hundred.
(c.) Add three hundred and eighty two to the result.
(d.) Divide the result by two.
(e.) Add your day of birth to the result.
(f.) Multiply the result by 100.
(g.) Add thirteen thousand, eight hundred and forty to the result.
(h.) Add the last two digits of your year of birth to the result.
(i.) Subtract thirty two thousand, nine hundred and forty from the result.
Run the code and display the output.
Explain your result.

(13.) A client wants you to develop a program to calculate the date of birth of her child.
The instructions for the previous question still applies to this question.
However, in this case; the program will give the instructions to the child, and the child will respond.
This program is an Input/Output program.
This implies that the cout (standard output stream) and cin (standard input stream) will be used.
Develop a C++ program for this child.

C++ Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) C++ Basic: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(B.) C++ Basic Algorithm: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(C.) C++ Math: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(D.) C++ Numbers: Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(14.) Please focus only on Questions that deals with Numbers and Operators.
Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write clear comments for each line of code in the Solution.
Run the program.
Submit clear screenshots.

Textbook Questions
(15.) Question (12.) on Page 118

(16.) Question (24.) on Page 121

For those who do not mind messing around with several languages at the same time
Student: Excuse me, Mr. C
This course is only for C++
What do you mean?
Teacher: You are correct.
But, these subsequent questions are not for everyone.
That is the reason I am putting them at the end.
I have a question for you.
Have you ever seen any IT/Computer Science position that requires the knowledge of only one programming language?
Student: I have not checked, Sir.
Teacher: If you intend to be in the IT/Programming field for the long run, at least four (four or more) languages are required.
If you look for IT positions at Indeed.com or other career/job websites, you will realize what I mean.
Search for c++ programmer, you might be surprised that even for entry level positions for a C++ Programmer; they require you to have a working knowledge of several other programming languages.
Mr. C is preparing you for that...if you intend to work in the programming field for a long time.
Besides, this is a critical thinking approach.
I am required to develop and promote critical thinking questions for my students.
A programmer is basically a problem-solver irrespective of the programming language used to solve the problem.
Yes, we are working with C++ However, if you find out that C# would be better in solving a particular problem in your workplace, then you need to use C# unless your employer says otherwise.
The knowledge of several languages is a good asset. It makes you highly valuable.
Further, anyone who attempts any of the subsequent questions will still have to write the program in C++ and get the same result.
The questions and solutions are in another language.
But the student will have to write the program in C++ and come up with the same solution. So, we are still on track.
It is critical thinking...multiple approaches to solving a question.
Be it as it may, these subsequent questions are not required.
It is okay even if you do not look at them. 😊

C# Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) C# Basic Declarations and Expressions : Exercises, Practice, Solution
(B.) C# Basic Algorithm: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(C.) C# Data Types : Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(17.) Please focus only on Questions that deals with Numbers and Operators.
Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your porgram output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Java Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) Java Math: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(B.) Java Basic Programming - Part 1: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(C.) Java Basic Programming - Part 2: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(D.) Java Data Types: Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(18.) Please focus only on Questions that deals with Numbers and Operators.
Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your porgram output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) Provide any of these if it is lacking in any DB post that solved any question in the Assess tab of this module: Well-written comments; another approach/method to solving the question; any additional relevant details; etc.

For Questions (10.) and (11.) in the Substantive Posts
Student: Mr. C, the instructions in Questions (10.) and (11.) are wrong.
The result is not my age.
How can you ask us to write a program that does not work?

(2.) Explain the result to the Student. (Answer this question only if any of your colleagues made a similar statement in the initial post.)

(3.) The Student wants only his/her age to be the result.
Without modifying any of the instructions (but using all of them) and one more instruction, extend the program to display only the Student's age.
What is the extra instruction that you would include to work for all ages? Write it. Run it. Submit clear screenshot.

For Questions (12.) and (13.) in the Substantive Posts
Student: Mr. C, I want the date of birth to display properly.
Teacher: Use a delimiter.
Student: What is a delimiter?
Teacher: A delimiter is a sequence of chararcters that specifies limits/boundaries of characters in a text, expression, word, etc.
A good example is the forward slash that you can use to separate that DOB in the form of: mm/dd/yyyy.
The forward slash is a delimiter.
Another example is the pipe delimiter: mm | dd | yyyy.
Another example is the hyphen delimiter: mm-dd-yyyy.
Student: Okay, how do I display the result in that format?

(4.) Explain how you would display the result for the Student.
Write the code. Run it. Submit clear screenshot.

(5.) If your colleague developed a console application for a program, develop a desktop application for the same program.
If your colleague developed a desktop application for a program, develop a console application for the same program.

(6.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

(1.) Develop a console application for an extension of the Body Mass Index (BMI) application example.
We did the application for the United States System (Customary System).
Extend the application by developing the calculator for the International System (Metric System).
The formula is on the screenshot.
Ask the user which system he/she wants to use to calculate the BMI.
Based on the user's selection, display the appropriate output.
Test all the conditions for both systems.

Textbook Questions
(2.) Question (8.) on Page 117

(3.) Question (16.) on Page 119

(4.) Question (18.) on Pages 119 and 120

(5.) Question (20.) on Page 120

Vocabulary Words

character, string, Boolean, bool, function, argument, dot member access operator, concatenator operator, string literal, empty string

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss the C++ String data type
(2.) Discuss the C++ Boolean data type
(3.) Discuss date and time functions in C++
(4.) Write programs that involves the String data type.
(5.) Write programs that involves the Boolean data type.
(6.) Write programs that involves Date and Time.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Boolean Operators
(https://www.cplusplus.com/doc/boolean/)

(3.) C++ Strings and C++ Booleans
(https://www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_strings.asp) and (https://www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_booleans.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Strings and/or C++ Booleans and/or C++ Date and Time in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Strings and/or C++ Booleans and/or C++ Date and Time in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

Strings

A string is a variable in C++ that contains a collection of characters enclosed in double quotation marks.
It must be enclosed in double (not single) quotation marks.

Remember the first C++ program we wrote, the output...the message, THANK GOD.
That is an example of a string.
Let us review more examples of what we could do with C++ strings.

Join two strings using Insertion operator and Concatenation operator - Example 1


Teacher: There is an issue here.
Student: There is no space between your first and last name.
Teacher: That is correct.
How do we fix it?
Student: Include a space between the names.
Teacher: There are several ways we can do this.
We can include an empty string space in between the names.

Join two strings using Insertion operator and Concatenation operator (Space included between the strings) - Example 2


Teacher: We can also use the Append function.
The Append function does not automatically include a space between the strings.
So, we have to include the space in the assignment of either string variable.


Join two strings using Insertion operator and Concatenation operator (using the Append function) - Example 3


Student: We could have also inserted a space after the first name in the previous example.
That way, there would be no need for the empty double quotes and the empty space of the additional insertion operator.
It is more efficent than inserting those empty spaces.
Teacher: That is correct.
Choose whatever way you prefer.

Let us review another function: The Insert function.
The Insert function inserts additional characters into the string right before the insertion point.
Let us write my full name: Samuel Dominic Chukwuemeka (first name, middle name, last name)
Say we want to insert my middle name in between my first name and my last name.
This implies that we are going to insert Dominic between Samuel Chukwuemeka
The l in Samuel is in the 6th position
The space between the l in Samuel and the C in Chukwuemeka is in the 7th position
Let us review the code to implement the Insert function.

Insert a string (using the Insert function) - Example 4

Backslash Escape Sequence, \

Sometimes, we write sentences that has single quotation marks and the double quotation marks.
How do we display these sentences in a C++ program?
We have to use the backslash escape sequence
It turns special characters into string characters.

Insert single quote, double quote, backslash in sentences

Input/Output Feature with Strings

In the previous module, we reviewed some examples of the Input/Output with Numbers.
In this module, let us demonstrate the Input/Output feature with strings.
In this case, we must include the <<string>> library.

C++ Input/Output Feature for String Variables - Example 1


Look at another example.
C++ Input/Output Feature for String Variables - Example 2


Teacher: Did you notice the issue?
Student: Yes, Sir
Teacher: How do we solve it?
Student: I do not know.
Teacher: We can fix it by using the getline function.
Let us fix it.

The issue with Example 2: The cin (extraction operator) considers spaces including whitespaces and tabs as terminating the value being extracted.
This implies that it extracts a string as a single word, not as a phrase or a sentence.
This is because it terminates once it sees a space.
The solution to Example 2: To get an entire line from cin, we need to use the getline function, that takes cin as the first argument, and the string variable as the second argument.
Let us see the solution.

C++ Input/Output Feature for String Variables - Example 2 Correction

Booleans

Teacher: What are you looking at?
You already know.
Student tries to hide it.
Teacher: I want to ask you something.
Look at it.
Please turn it off...remember the course syllabus.
Before you turn it off, do you see two numbers in the Power off button?
Student: Numbers?
I do not see numbers.
It's an icon.
Teacher: Yes, they are numbers.
The numbers are: 0 and 1
1 is inside the 0 in most devices.
Student: Interesting.
Teacher: 0 represents OFF
1 represents ON
You see these two numbers in almost all electronic devices (tablets, smartphones, computers) including some electric switches.
In Logic, 0 represents FALSE
1 represents TRUE
We use true and false Boolean values in Statements including conditional statements and iterative statements.
We shall cover Statements in the next module.
The use of these two numbers: 0 and 1 in Mathematics and Computer Science to repesent FALSE and TRUE values is known as Boolean Algebra
It was developed by George Boole, an English mathematician/philospher/logician.
We can also use these Boolean numbers 0 and 1 to represent choices/options of NO and YES

A Boolean is a fundamental data type in C++ that:

(1.) is declared with the keyword, bool

(2.) can represent only one of two states: true or false

(3.) gives an output of only one of two values: 1 or 0
1 represents true
0 represents false

(4.) is used for comparison (in relational and comparison operators) to compare expressions.

(5.) is used in statements (conditional statements and iterative statements) to make decisions.

A Boolean Expression is an expression that returns a Boolean value.

Let us demonstrate some examples of the use of Booleans

Date and Time

Date and time stamps are needed for: transactions, receipts, appointments, agreements, events, rules/laws, and tickets (by cops and troopers) among others.
Besides, we shall use the date and time functions in the midterm project.
Let us discuss date and time.

Teacher: The date and time is interesting in the sense that I would not classify it as a string or as an integer.
Student: What data type would you call it?
Teacher: It is a data type by itself.
However, you can treat it as a string and use certain string functions such as the substr to slice it.
You can also treat it as an integer by adding or subtracting days and years.

As at today: 09/28/2020; because we are using the Visual Studio and because we shall be using some libraries, the first thing we need to do is to remove system warnings.
Yes, we do not want any warning from Visual Studio for using the libraries that we want to use.
In that regard, we shall write this code as the first code in our program.

                            #define _CRT_SECURE_NO_WARNINGS
                        

We have several approaches to returning date (day, month, year) and time.
We shall discuss two approaches in this module.
Please review the examples in the screenshots and the comments.

First Approach: Using the <ctime> library and Reference, &






Second Approach: Using Pointers and Reference, &
I understand we are yet to learn Pointers.
However, it is nice to get acquainted with it.

Required Substantive Posts

You may use strings not written in English language. However, if you use any language other than English language, please make sure you translate it. Your colleagues and I need to understand any language you use.
Insensitive words or any word deemed inappropriate to any race, gender, religion, and national origin among others are unacceptable. Any violation will not yield any point.
If you are not sure of the words/string to use, please contact me first.

Please review all the member functions of strings here: https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/string/string/
Scroll down until you see member functions:
As at the time of this writing;
The first one/link on the list is the string::append (the Append function)
The last one/link on the list if the string::swap (the Swap function)
Click on each link and review the example/how it is used.
(1.) Pick any five methods besides the ones I discussed.
Write the code examples for each of the five methods and implement each of them.
Run your codes.
Display the results.
Submit clear screenshots of your code examples of each of the five methods and the corresponding results.
You may use strings not written in English language. However, if you use any language other than English language, it is important you translate it. Your colleagues and I need to understand your code.
Insensitive words, or any words deemed inappropriate to any race, gender, religion are unacceptable. Any violation will not yield any point.
If you are not sure of the words/string to use, please contact me first.

(2.) Please review the Date and Time example in this module.
Our students come from the entire 50 states of the United States and its territories.
However, the United States has different time zones.
Find out/browse/learn/discover the different time zones in the United States and its territories as seen in the The Official U.S. Time (https://time.gov/) according to the National Institute of Standards and Technology
Include those time zones in your comments.
Display the current date and time for each time zone.
Verify your answer with the times and time zones on that website.

(3.) C++ Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) C++ Strings: Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write clear comments for each line of code in the Solution.
Run the program.
Submit clear screenshots.

For those who do not mind messing around with several languages at the same time
Student: Excuse me, Mr. C
This course is only for C++
What do you mean?
Teacher: You are correct.
But, these subsequent questions are not for everyone.
That is the reason I am putting them at the end.
I have a question for you.
Have you ever seen any IT/Computer Science position that requires the knowledge of only one programming language?
Student: I have not checked, Sir.
Teacher: If you intend to be in the IT/Programming field for the long run, at least four (four or more) languages are required.
If you look for IT positions at Indeed.com or other career/job websites, you will realize what I mean.
Search for c++ programmer, you might be surprised that even for entry level positions for a C++ Programmer; they require you to have a working knowledge of several other programming languages.
Mr. C is preparing you for that...if you intend to work in the programming field for a long time.
Besides, this is a critical thinking approach.
I am required to develop and promote critical thinking questions for my students.
A programmer is basically a problem-solver irrespective of the programming language used to solve the problem.
Yes, we are working with C++ However, if you find out that C# would be better in solving a particular problem in your workplace, then you need to use C# unless your employer says otherwise.
The knowledge of several languages is a good asset. It makes you highly valuable.
Further, anyone who attempts any of the subsequent questions will still have to write the program in C++ and get the same result.
The questions and solutions are in another language.
But the student will have to write the program in C++ and come up with the same solution. So, we are still on track.
It is critical thinking...multiple approaches to solving a question.
Be it as it may, these subsequent questions are not required.
It is okay even if you do not look at them. 😊

C# Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) C# Strings : Exercises, Practice, Solution
(B.) C# Date and Time: Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(4.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Java Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
(A.) Java Strings: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(B.) Java Date and Time: Exercises, Practice, Solution
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(5.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Required Substantive Responses

(1.) Review the post of your colleague.
Use at least one different string function to work on the same string used by your colleague.

(2.) Provide any of these if it is lacking in any DB post that solved any question in the Assess tab of this module: Well-written comments; another approach/method to solving the question; any additional relevant details; etc.

(3.) If your colleague developed a console application for a program, develop a desktop application for the same program.
If your colleague developed a desktop application for a program, develop a console application for the same program.

(4.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

You may use strings not written in English language. However, if you use any language other than English language, please make sure you translate it. Your colleagues and I need to understand any language you use.
Insensitive words or any word deemed inappropriate to any race, gender, religion, and national origin among others are unacceptable. Any violation will not yield any point.
If you are not sure of the words/string to use, please contact me first.

(1.) We are yet to do Statements (in the next Module), but you can give this question a try.
A string palindrome is a word, phrase, clause or sequence of characters that is spelled and read the same way backward and forward.
In other words, when one reads it as is, reverses it and reads it again; the pronunciation is the same.
Examples include the:
Words: HANNAH, BOB, madam, level, civic, racecar, rotor
Phrase: never odd or even
Clause: nurses run
Sentence: Was it a car or a cat I saw?

Write a C++ program that asks for user input.
Determine if the user input is a string.
If the user input is not a string, ask the user to enter only a string.
If the user input is a string, determine if it is a string palindrome.
Inform the user whether it a string palindrome or not.
Test at least one example of: Words, Phrase, Clause, and Sentence that was listed.
This implies testing at least four examples.
Submit clear screenshots of the code and the results.

(2.) Please review the Date and Time example in this module.
Our students come from the entire 50 states of the United States and its territories.
However, the United States has different time zones.
Find out/browse/learn/discover the different time zones in the United States and its territories as seen in the The Official U.S. Time (https://time.gov/) according to the National Institute of Standards and Technology
Include those time zones in your comments.
Display the current date and time for each time zone.
Greet each user (your fellow colleague) according to their time zones (their own current times).
If the time is between 12:00:01 AM to 12:00:00 PM (inclusive), greet Good Morning.
If the time is between 12:00:01 PM to 04:00:00 PM (inclusive), greet Good Afternoon.
If the time is between 04:00:01 PM to 12:00:00 PM (inclusive), greet Good Evening.
You may use 12-hour or 24-hour time formats.
These are the minimum requirements. You are welcome to add more functionalities.

(3.) Write a C++ program that solves Question (8.) on the Applications of Numbers website.
(https://numbersandnotations.appspot.com/numbersApplications.html)
Use any actual date that is a Tuesday.
Ensure that the output of your program corresponds to the solution on the website.
Please display: the actual date, the actual day, the new date and the new day in your output.
In other words, I am looking for the input date that corresponds to a Tuesday, the input day that is the Tuesday, the output date that corresponds to a Friday, and the output day that is the Friday.
Please check to ensure your program gives the correct output (result).
You may develop a console application or a desktop application for this program.
Submit screenshots of the question, your program, and the output of your program.

Vocabulary Words

statement, program, linear sequence, flow control, flow of execution, statement block, nested blocks, declaration statements, expression, expression statements, control flow statements, conditional statements, selection statements, decision-making statements, decisions, branches, repetitive statements, iteration statements, loops, for loop, while loop, do-while loop, jump statements

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss Statements in C++
(2.) Write conditional statements.
(3.) Write iterative statements.
(4.) Write programs that solve real world problems using statements.
(5.) Complete the Midterm Project on Piecewise Functions.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Statements
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/control/)

(3.) C++ Conditions to C++ Break/Continue
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_conditions.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Statements and/or C++ Conditional Statements in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Statements and/or C++ Conditional Statements in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

A statement in C++ is an individual instruction of a program.
It ends with a semicolon.
Statements are executed in the same order in which they appear in the program.

C++ statements can consist of:
(1.) Linear sequence of statements.
These are the statements we have been writing in previous modules.
These statements flow in a linear order...line by line as they were written.

(2.) Conditional statements or Selection statements or Branches.
These statements are executed based on decisions.
Examples are: If statements, If-else statements, If-else if-else statements, Multiple Ifs statements

(3.) Repetitive statements or Iteration statements or Loops.
These statements are repeated and executed a certain number of times until a condition is met.
Examples are: for loops, while loops, do-while loops

All the codes we have written so far are mainly linear statements.
In this module, we shall write conditional statements and repetitive statements.

Selection Statements

Selection statements are statements that execute an action based on some condition(s).
They are also known as Conditional Statements or Decisions or Branches
These statements are:
(1.) If statement
This statement is used when there is only one condition.
If some condition is met, execute a given task.
The If statement is written as:

                            if (condition) 
                            { 
                                statement;
                            }
                        

C++ ignores whitespaces so you can also write it this way:

if (condition) { statement; }

(2.) If-else statement
This statement is used when there are only two conditions.
If first condition is met, execute a given task.
else execute another task.
The else refers to the other condition.
The If-else statement is written as:

                        if (condition 1) 
                        {
                            statement;
                        } 
                        else 
                        {
                            statement;
                        } 
                    

C++ ignores whitespaces so you can also write it this way:

if (condition) { statement; } else { statement; }

We can also write simple If-else statement using the Ternary operator
It can be used for simple if-else statements.
The syntax is: variable = if (condition) ? statement if true : statement if false; (3.) If-else if - else statement
This statement is used when there are more than two conditions in which the first condition is used for the If statement, other conditions are used for the else if statements, and the last condition is used for the else statement.
Please note that the last condition for the else statement is not specifid in the code. But, it is generally known as the remaining condition after all other conditions are specified.
Assume we have only four conditions for a particular program:
The If-else if-else statement is written as:

                        if (condition 1) 
                        {
                            statement;
                        } else if (condition 2)
                        {
                            statement;
                        } else if (condition 3) 
                        {
                            statement;
                        } else 
                        {
                            statement;
                        } 
                    

Whitespaces are ignored in C++. Therefore you can also write it this way:

                        if (condition 1) { statement; } 
                        else if (condition 2) { statement; } 
                        else if (condition 3) { statement; } 
                        else {statement; }
                    

Keep in mind that we do not specify condition 4 in the code for the else statement because we already know that statement for the else statement would only be executed if all the other prior conditions are not met.


(4.) Multiple Ifs statement
This statement is used when there are more than two conditions in which each condition is uniquely different.
You can also use this statement if you are not comfortable using the If-else if - else statement.
Both statements accomplish the same task.
Assume we have only four conditions for a particular program:
The Multiple Ifs statement is written as:

                            if (condition 1) 
                            {
                                statement;
                            }
                            if (condition 2)
                            {
                                statement;
                            }
                            if (condition 3) 
                            {
                                statement;
                            }
                            if (condition 4) 
                            {
                                statement;
                            } 
                        

Whitespaces are ignored in C++. Therefore you can also write it this way:

                            if (condition 1) { statement; } 
                            if (condition 2) { statement; } 
                            if (condition 3) { statement; } 
                            if (condition 4) { statement; }
                        

Review the Definitions of Numbers
(www.numbersandnotations.appspot.com/#definitions)

Selection Statements: Example 1 (If statement)


Student: What if the user enters $5$?
Teacher: Very good question.
What do you think?
Student: I'm not sure.
But, I'm guessing it will not run.
Teacher: The program will still run.
However, there will be no output.
Do you know the reason?
Student: Because there was no condition in the If statement to check for that?
Teacher: That is correct.
We did not specify what should happen if num1 is 0 or if num1 is greater than 0.
We need to specify all conditions.
Let's check it out

Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 2 (If statement is NOT enough)


Teacher: As we can see, it do not display any output.
How do we take care of this?
Student: Include the condition in the conditional statement
Teacher: I know. 😊
How do we include it?
Let us see what we can do.

Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 3 (If-else statement)


Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 4: Using the Ternary operator


Student: Line #21 ... how did you get the %i
Teacher: The i stands for an integer data type
Remember the list of the Print Formatted:function: printf
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/cstdio/printf/)
Student: What if I do not want to use If-else statement or the Ternary operator?
What if I decide to use Multiple Ifs statements for that example?
Will it work?
Teacher: Good question.
Yes, you can use Multiple Ifs
Just make sure you cover all the conditions...including the condition that would have been covered by the else statement
In that particular example, the condition covered by the else statement is if the number is greater than or equal to zero
Let us write the program using Multiple Ifs

Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 5 (Multiple Ifs statements)





Let us look at more examples.
Recall: In English Language, Finite Mathematics, Discrete Mathematics; some of the ways to join simple statements to make a compound statement are:
(I.) Use of the conjunction, and
(II.) Use of the disjunction, or

Let us review an example where we shall use the conjunction, and

Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 6 (If-else statement and the use of the conjunction, and)





Student: What if we have a set of numbers and we want to see if those numbers are positive odd numbers?
Teacher: Great question.
That brings us to an array or list of numbers.
The use of arrays and loops is a more efficient approach of solving those kinds of questions.
We shall cover that in another module.
However, we can still do something here.
Let us review the extraction operator, cin

The extraction operator, cin can be chained to accept multiple user input in a single statement.
However, those user input must be entered individually in new lines, or separated with a space or a tab. (NOT a comma!)
Let us try it with two numbers.

Selection/Conditional Statements: Example 7 (Multiple If-else statements, use of "and"; chained cin)

Piecewise Functions

A good application of C++ Selection statements is seen in Piecewise functions.
Please review the Story on Piecewise Functions
(www.piecewise-functions.appspot.com/#story)
Let us write several C++ programs that will solve the Piecewise function problem in that story.

Piecewise Function: Selection Statements using Multiple Ifs statements
Selection Statements: Example 8 (Multiple conditions: Multiple ifs)





Let us address user-input errors for the number of burritos that may be out of range in the Piecewise Function.
It is important to address user-input errors in any program you write.
In this case (for the Story on Piecewise Functions): the program will not display any output if the user enters a negative number, a zero, or any positive number greater than the upper bound of the last piece.
The user may then be confused if he/she does not see any output.
We want to avoid that.
In the case of user-input error, we want the program to display a message that the user entered something out of range, and then exit without interrupting the system.
Hence, we wrote the message for the user and included the exit(0); method to exit the program.

What if the user enters $2500$?


What if the user enters $-3$?


Student: Can we write the same Piecewise function using the If-else if-else statements?
Teacher: Nice question.
What do you think?
Student: I think we can.
Teacher: Yes but we need to include the last else statement
Student: Must we include it?
Teacher: Highly recommended...yes
However, the program will work even if we do not include it.
But my recommendation is that whenever you use if-else statement, make sure you include the last else statement
In this case (using the if-else if-else statement), the last elsestatement will have a statement but not a condition.
It is executed when all prior conditions are not met.
So, let us write a statement that will display the message to the user if the user enters any value that is out of range. using the If-else if-else statements

Piecewise Function: Selection Statements using If-else if-else statements
Selection Statements: Example 9 (Multiple conditions: If-else if-else statements)





What if the user enters $0$?


What if the user enters $3000$?


What if the user enters $-12$?


Teacher: Did you notice the importance of that final else statement?
We did not need to specify the range of numbers that are out of bounds as we did for the Multiple-Ifs statements.
In other words, we do not specify the condition for the else statement.
Also, it is better to inform the user what he/she entered.
Typically, the user should notice it, after the message we wrote for the Multiple-Ifs
However, it is better to show the user what was entered, as well as the message.

(5.) Switch statement
Another selection statement is the switch statement or switch block.
The general syntax of the switch block is:

                            int variable    
                            switch (variable)
                            {
                            case 1: 
                            	statement;
                            	break;
                            case 2:
                            	statement;
                            	break;
                            case 3:
                            	statement;
                            	break;
                            default:
                            	statement;
                            }
                        

NOTE In C++, the variable in the switch keyword must be an integer data type or the enumeration (enum) type.

Case 1
The switch block compares the value of the variable with 1
If the value of the variable is 1, then it executes the statement in case 1 and breaks, thus ending the program.
If the value of the variable is not 1, it moves on to case 2 and compares the value of the variable with 2
If the value of the variable is 2, it executes the statement in case 2, breaks, and ends the program.
Otherwise, it moves to case 3.
It compares the value of the variable with 3
If that value is 3, it executes the statement in case 3 and breaks. The program ends.
If that value is not 3, it executes the statement in the default
As noted, the break statement ends the program when the value of the variable is equal to the case number, otherwise the switch statement moves on to the next case and continues the comparison.

If the variable is not assigned any integer value, the program will not run.

If the variable is assigned a value of 1, and the break statement is not used in any of the cases; then the program will execute all the statements, including the statement in the default

If the variable is assigned a value of 1, and the break statement is used in case 2; then the program will execute the statements in case 1 and case 2 only.

Let us review some examples of the Switch statement

Teacher: Have you noticed these Call Center greetings?
For English, press 1; Para Español, marque dos.
Student: Yes I have.
You mean to say: For Spanish, press 2.
Teacher: Yes.
Let us write a simple application for that greeting using a simple Select-Case statement.
We can add more simple features...spice it up

Switch Statements: Example 1: Call Center Greetings







Switch Statements: Example 2: List all the continents of the world



Because we listed all the continents, we did not use any break statement.

Teacher: What if we wanted to print only North America?
Student: We will set the number to 6 rather than 1
Teacher: Is that all?
Student: We also need to put the break statement in every case.
Teacher: Correct.
So, the switch statement begins with case 1; finds that it is 1 (not 6); and moves on to case 2.
2 is not 6. So, it moves to case 3.
It continues to do so until it gets to case 6.
It finds that 6 = 6. So, it evalautes that statement, (which is "North America, and").
Then, it breaks.
Teacher: What happens if there was no break statement after case 6?
Student: If there was no break statement after case 6, it will move to case 7 and print out South America as well.
Teacher: Correct!
What if we wanted to list only the first three continents?
Student: We have to put the break statement after the continent, Asia.
Teacher: That is right.
Let us print the first three continents in alphabetical order.

Switch Statements: Example 3: List the first three continents of the world in alphabetical order



Teacher: What if the user does not want to identify with any continent?
Some people do not want to identify with any race.
Some people do not want to identify with any gender.
Student: I am not sure.
We have to add another case, maybe?
Teacher: Yes, we have to add another case, the default keyword.
It is important to include it in every switch statement.

The default keyword should be included in every Switch statement.
It is optional to include it. However, it should be included.
This is necessary to accommodate any situation that is not listed in any of the cases.
The default keyword is listed as the last.
Because we have only 7 cases (case 1 through case 7), and the user does not want to identify with any of these cases, we have to initialize the variable, worldContinents to 8.
By doing so, the switch statement would not see any case 8.
Hence, it will return the statement in the default

Student: Assume I want to use a String as the variable rather than an integer
What should I do?
Do I have to do some conversion/casting?
Teacher: To use a string as the variable in the switch keyword, we need to use the enumeration type
The enumeration type has constants. We can write the strings as the constants.
Each string is separated from another string with a comma.
We do not include the quotation marks for the strings.
Further, there are no spaces in-between any string/words.
In other words; if a string has more than one word, the words must be wirtten as a single word.
Let us do some examples.

Let us write a Switch statement that uses the enum type.
Let us print the continent that has the country whose currency has the inscription, "IN GOD WE TRUST".
That country is the U...S...A (United States of America)...Yayyyyyy!!!
The USA is a country in the North America continent.

Switch Statements: Example 4: Print the continent that has the country whose currency has the inscription, "IN GOD WE TRUST".



You may review the C++ Enumeration Declaration for more examples on how you can use them with the Switch statement.
(https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/enum)

Teacher: Remember the the Piecewise Function program we wrote earlier.
We used Conditional statements to write it.
Student: Yes
Teacher: We can develop the same application using the Swtich statement and the Ternary operator
Student: Interesting
Is it an easier approach?
Teacher: Not necessarily, but worth knowing.
Let's do it.

Piecewise Function Application using the Switch Statement and the Ternary Operator

Nested Conditional Statements

                           dataType variable;
                            if condition 1
                            {
                                If condition 2
                                { 
                                    statement;
                                }
                                else
                                { 
                                    statement;
                                }
                            } 
                                 
                            else if condition 3
                            { 
                                if condition 4
                                {
                                    statement;
                                } 
                                else
                                { 
                                    statement;
                                }
                            } 
                            
                            else
                            { 
                                statement; 
                            } 
                        

Iteration Statements

Iteration statements are:
(1.) For Loop
(2.) While Loop
(3.) Do-While Loop
(4.) Range-based For Loop

We shall discuss the first three in this module.
The fourth one: range-based for loop is used to print arrays.
So, we shall discuss it in Module 7.

For Loop
The general syntax of a For Loop is:

                            for (initialize; condition; increment/decrement)
                            {
                        	    statement;
                            }
                        

While Loop
The general syntax of a While Loop is:

                            initialize;
                            while (condition)
                            {
                                statement;
                                increment/decrement;
                            }
                        

Do-While Loop
The general syntax of a Do-While Loop is:

                            initialize;
                            do 
                            {
                                statement;
                                increment/decrement;
                            } while (condition);
                        

Example 1: Print the first ten positive integers using the three types of loops






Which of these types of loops do you prefer?
Let us do more examples.

Example 2: Print the even numbers less than $25$: First Approach: By Definition
This approach uses the Definition of an even number.
It has a nested selection statement (if-statement).
Use three different iteration statements.




As you can see, we had to include conditional statement, if statement in the loop
Based on the defintion of an even number on the website: Numbers and Notations
(https://numbersandnotations.appspot.com/#definitions)
An even number is an integer divisible by 2 without a remainder.
It is important to include that condition in the loop
As the program loops through each number less than 25; if the number is divisible by 2 without a remainder; the program will output it.
We can also use a different approach to print the numbers using only iteration statements (without including conditional statements)
Let us review that approach.

Example 3: Another way to print even numbers less than $25$: Second Approach: By Iterator
This approach uses incremental values of $2$
It does not have a nested selection statement (if-statement).
Use three different iteration statements.




Let us: Print the perfect squares between 1 and 100 (1 and 100 are inclusive)
There are at least three approaches to write this program.
Let us review each approach.

Example 4: Print the perfect squares between 1 and 100: First Approach: Using only Iterators




Student: I do not seem to understand this
Teacher: What do you not understand?
Student: Initializing the variables
Line #17 and Line #18: you initialized num1Squared and num2Squared
But you did not initilize num3Squared?
Teacher: I can...if I wanted to
However, it is not necessary to do so.
Line #22: I was going to use num1Squared (numSquared < 100)
If I did not initialize it before using it, it will be an error.
The same applies to Line #33 (num2Squared < 100)
However, it does not apply to the do-while loop because in Line #47, it was defined with the formula
We are supposed to define a variable after declaring that variable
After defining it, then we can use it.
But if we decide to use it after declaring it without defining it, there will be an error.
So, it was not necessary for me to initialize num3Squared to 1 because I defined it in Line #45 before using it in Line #50
Student: So, initializing it is seen as defining it?
Teacher: Yes...in that case/sense
Student: Another question
The program prints the perfect squares between $1$ and $100$ (both ends inclusive)
However, the condition in the program for those three different loops used less than 100
Should it not be less than or equal to 100?
Teacher: Very good question
Here's the thing:
If we use less than or equal to 100, it will print $121$ and stop at $121$ rather than 100
The program is executed in a top-down approach
So, the number will increment to 11 and print the square of 11 before the program ends.
This is because 100 is less than or equal to 100
Based on the way we wrote the program, the number increments, then is squared, then the square is printed, and then the condition (whether the square is less than 100)
So, in order to print only that range (1 - 100), we want the program to stop at the condition when the square is less than 100.
If the square is less than or equal to 100, it will continue, and then allow the number to increment to 11, square it to give 121, and the print it before that condition that stops it. We do not want it that way.
Does it make sense?
Student: I don't think so.
Is there another way we can solve this question?
Teacher: Yes of course.
We can nest an if-statement inside the first two iteration statements: (for-loop and while-loop).
In that case, we shall not initialize those variables.
Also, we shall use the less than or equal to 100 in that approach.
Let us write the program using that approach.

Example 5: Print the perfect squares between 1 and 100: Second Approach: Using Iterators and Nested Selection Statements




Teacher: Is this appraoch better?
Student: Much better.
We also used only two variables.
Teacher: Let us do the third approach.

Example 6: Print the perfect squares between 1 and 100: Third Approach: Using Iterators, Nested Selection Statements and the Logical operator: Conjunction: AND: &&




In the third approach, we used the conditional if statement and the conjunction: and
It does not matter if you use the prefix increment operator: firstNum++ and thirdNum++ (as we did in the for loop and do-while loop) or the post fix increment operator: ++secondNum++ (as we did in the while loop)

In Nigeria, we had to recite Multiplication Tables (from 2 * 12 to 12 * 12) in the kindergarten/elementray school
These Multiplication Tables are written on the back of most exercise books.
Input/Output feature: Let us write the Multiplication Table for a number (an integer)
Input: We shall ask the user to enter an integer
Output: The program will print the multiplication table for that integer.

Example 7: Print the Multiplication Table for a number





Student: I am not sure if you have covered the setw
What does it mean?
setw is the Field Width function
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/iomanip/setw/)
It is used to set the field width for your output.
We used it to ensure the Multiplication Table columns display are indented to those spaces (proper indentation of the columns).
To use it, we needed to include the input-output manipulator library: <iomanip>
Student: What if we didn't use it?
Teacher: The columns in the Multiplication Table will not be properly indented.
We used it to make the table look nice...appealing to the eye.

So far, we have been incrementing...using the increment operator to iterate.
However, we must not always increment.
We can also use decrement operators.

Jump Statements

Jump statements are statements that control the flow of a program by performing jumps to specific locations.
They include:
(1.) The Break statement
(2.) The Continue statement
(3.) The Goto statement

Jump statements are not standalone statements.
They are usually embedded in/used with selection statements and iteration statements.

Break Statement
The break statement breaks/stops a loop even when the loop is still running.
In other words, even if the conditions for a loop has not been satisfied, introducing the break statement at any point in the loop stops the loop and ends the program.
A good advantage of the break statement is that it can be used to end an infinite loop.

Continue Statement
The continue statement causes the program to skip a portion of the loop, and continue the loop.
In other words, using the continue statement does not run the entire loop. It skips some part of the loop and then allows the loop to continue.

Goto Statement
The goto statement causes the program to jump from one point in the program to another point in the program.
This statement is rarely used.

Let us demonstrate these jump statements.
Please review all the screenshots and all the comments.

Jump Statements: Break Statement, Continue Statement, Goto Statement





Let us redo one of the examples we did using Iteration statements.
Let us redo the Example (2.) in Iteration statements, with Iteration and Jump statements.

Redo Example 2 in Iteration Statement using Iteration statement and Jump statement

Application of Statements : An Example : Solve a Mathematics Question

Let us solve Question (34.) on Arithmetic Sequences (www.samuelchukwuemeka.com/Sequences/arithmeticSequences.html) using selection statements, iteration statements, and jump statements.
We shall use iteration statements: for loop, while loop, and do-while loop to solve the question.
Then, we shall use iteration statements, jump statements and selection statements to solve the question.

Application of Statements: Calculate the sum of the $n$ terms of an arithmetic sequence.
Iteration Statements, Selection Statements and Jump Statements





Student: Mr. C, I understand the initialization of the number of terms...as given by the syntax for the loops.
But, why did we initialize the sum to 0?
Teacher: We initialized the sum to 0 because we have to increment each number and add.
$1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ...$ is the same as saying $0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ...$
Student: Why did we initialize?
Why can't we just declare the variable and keep adding the numbers?
Teacher: We have to use "something" to hold the sum.
Because we need to keep adding to "something", we need to initialize "that thing".
"That thing" is the "sum"
Student: The solution on your website used a formula to solve that question.
If we were using formula to solve it, do we need to initialize the sum?
Teacher: Good question.
We do not.
However, some compilers are picky and would insist that you do.
It is a good practice to initialize variables.
Student: Do we always have to intialize to $0$?
Teacher: We do not.
If we were going to multiply (rather than add) numbers...say we declare product as the variable rather than sum, then we have to initialize that variable to $1$ because we shall be multiplying numbers to it rather than adding numbers to it.
The number you use to initialize a variable is to just hold a value to that variable...more like a placeholder.
It does not determine or influence the final result of that variable.

Midterm Project

The midterm project is designed to assess your knowledge of Statements in solving real-world problems.
It is a Piecewise Function application.
Any other application will not considered.

Please:
(1.) Visit my website on: Piecewise Functions

(2.) Read the Story to understand the idea of Piecewise functions.

(3.) Read the Overview of Piecewise Functions for more understanding of Piecewise functions.

(4.) Study the Applications of Piecewise Functions

(5.) Review the Project Examples. Ensure you follow all the instructions and directions.

(6.) Review the Midterm Project rubric for your course.

(7.) Complete the Midterm Project for your course.

(8.) Ask questions. I can help.
If you have any issue at any time and you have reviewed the resources I provided and you cannot fix the issue, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

(9.) Include all these: (documentation of all your Math work and the .exe file) in OneDrive, create a shareable link, and post the link in the Midterm Project Drafts forum of the course on Blackboard or send to me via email.
You may also upload them directly if you prefer.
I shall review and provide feedback.

(10.) When you are done with your project:
Make sure your executable file runs by itself outside the project folder
If it does run, include these three items: single executable file (that runs by itself outside the folder), the Math documentation (Word document that has the Math part), and the entire project folder, into a folder, zip the folder (.zip extension only) and submit it in the appropriate area of the Blackboard course.
If it does not run, please fix it.
If you cannot fix it, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

NOTE: Any actual project submitted to me via email will not be graded.

If you wish to save some time for research:
Please review the Piecewise Function projects done by my previous students.
The direct link of the verifiable websites are included.
(I.) VB Projects
(II.) C# Projects
(III.) C++ Projects
(IV.) Java Projects

You may not do any same application done by any of my previous students for C++
You may do any Piecewise Function application not done by any of my previous students for C++
If you are not sure what project you may or may not do, please contact me via the school email.

Vocabulary Words

function, method, pre-defined function, user-defined function, parameter, argument, function overload,

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss functions.
(2.) Write functions that solves real world problems.
(3.) Overload functions.
(4.) Discuss function templates.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Functions to Name visibility
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/functions/)

(3.) C++ Functions to C++ Function Overloading
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_functions.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Functions in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Functions in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

Functions

Teacher: Guess what?
Student: We have been using a function since we wrote our first C++ program.
What is that function called?
Student: You mean the main function?
The int main()
Teacher: That is correct.
As we mentioned in the first module, every C++ program is written in the main function.
Any code written in that main function is expected to run.
The main function is a system pre-defined function
We shall discuss functions (user-defined functions) in this module.
It is the only function that is called automatically regardless of the order in which it is written.
In other words, whether you write the main function before or after the user-defined function, it does not matter. The main function is called first by the C++ program.
This implies that any other user-defined function should be called in the main function directly or indirectly. Note that we cannot use the reserved word, main as the name of any function we define (user-defined function).
The functions that we shall discuss in this module are user-defined functions

A function is a group of statements (block of code), that allows for reusability of those statements/code, and performs some action when called.

Student: We just discussed Statements in the previous module.
Teacher: That is correct.
Let us deal with a group of statements in this module.

It is also known as a method.
Usually, a function takes in parameters.
Parameters are normally variables, and we declare them as we declare variables.
They function as local variables to the function that takes them.
Parameters allow us to pass arguments to the function from the location where it is called from.

Student: To be honest, I have no idea what you just said.
What are parameters? arguments?
Teacher: Let me explain with an example.

Assume we have this function:

                        int sumNumbers (int num1, int num2) {
                            return num1 + num2;
                        }
                        sumNumbers (5, 7) // The result will be 12
                    

In that example:
sumNumbers is the name of the function.
It is the identifier by which we call the function (we called the function for (5, 7))

num1 is the first parameter
num2 is the second parameter
$5$ is the first argument
$7$ is the second argument

The two parameters we defined when we created the sumNumbers function allowed us to pass the two arguments/values when we called that same function.
Some programmers use the words, parameter and argument interchangeably.
However, they are 'technically' not the same.

Student: The main function that we have been using, int main() does not have any parameter
Is it because it is the default function?
Teacher: Yes. Typically, we do not pass parameters in the main function, though we can if we want to.
However, we do not.

The general syntax to create (declare) a function in C++ is:

return-data-type function-name ( data-type1 parameter1, data-type2 parameter2, ...) {
statements;
}

Notable Notes
return-data-type is the type of value to be returned by the function.
Please note:
(1.) A function may or may not have any parameter.
(2.) A function may or may not return any value.
In the above two cases, the we use the data type, void as the return value of the function when we create such function.

function-name is the name of the function
It is the identifier by which we call the function.

data-type1 is the data type for the first parameter
parameter1 is the first parameter

data-type2 is the data type for the second parameter
parameter2 is the second parameter

(3.) The data type of the return value of the function we create must not be the same data type as the paramaters.

(4.) We can call the same function multiple times in a program...this is nice :-)

(5.) We can have a default parameter for a function we create.
The default parameter is created by assigning a value to it.
That value is the default value
If we use a default parameter in a function, and call that function without any argument; the function will return the default value

Student: I do not understand the explanation of the default parameter
Teacher: No worries.
We shall do an example.


(6.) We can use multiple parameters in a function....this is nice 😊

(7.) As our program gets more detailed/long, we can separate our user-defined function from the main function....this is really nice. :-)
We shall be use a header file in this regard, and include that header file in the main function.
The header file has the file extension, .h
We shall use meaningful file names for header files.
The header file should include the basic libraries including the input-output stream library and the namespace standard library as well as our user-defined function.

Let us work with functions.

Example 1 : Celsius to Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion


Student: I have many questions.
Teacher: I understand.
Let us go over the example line by line.

Lines #9 - 13: user-defined function
We already know the formula for converting from Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature (put the website)
Line #9:
I understand we said earlier that the void data type does not return any value.
That is correct.
We do not use the return keyword with the void data type because the void data type does not return any value.
However, the void data type displays output that can include any value we want to return.
Hence, it is good to use it if we want to display a nice well-written output.
We defined the function.
We used a meaningful name, celsius2Fahrenheit
We want the user to pass in the value of the Celsius temperature
That value may be an integer or a decimal. So, we used the double data type to define the parameter, celsiusTemp

Line #10:
We defined the output variable, fahrenheitTemp
This is the variable that will give the value of the converted Celsius temperature.
Because that value can be an integer or a decimal, we define it with the double data type.

Line #11:
We write the the formula for converting Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature.
In other words, we write the formula for the fahrenheitTemp output variable.

Line #12:
Display the output well
Include the user-input value of the Celsius temperature and the converted Fahrenheit temperature value in the output display.
Include the units accordingly.
To see the symbols for the units, as well as the several characters and letters of foreign languages; please see the ASCII Characters

Lines #15 - 23: main function
Line #20:
We call that user-defined function we defined in Lines #9 - 13
We pass in the argument, $37$ into the function
The output we defined in Line #12 is displayed.

Student: Does it matter if we write the main function before the user-defined function?
Teacher: Yes, it does matter.
Just as we define a variable before we use it, we need to define/declare a function first before we call it.
Student: Why did you use \370?
Teacher: The display of the degree symbol is \370
It is the octal value of the ASCII character as seen in the OEM Extended ASCII table: ASCII Characters
(www.samdomforpeace.com/References/ASCII.html)

Example 2 : Celsius to Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion









Please Save All (save both files) before you Build Solution
If the Build succeeded (message at the lower left hand corner of your computer), run the program.

The inclusion of the header file has several benefits.
It allows us to separate our user-defined function from the main function.
It allows for neat programming.
We can write more complex programs.
It is easier to spot and fix errors regardless the complexity of the program.
We can definitely include more functions in our header file.

Example 3 : Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to Celsius Temperature Conversion



We can add more functionality to this program
Let us request for user input
The user can input any value he/she wants

Example 4 : Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to Celsius Temperature Conversion : Request user input



Notice how we wrote the user input request in the main program
When the program runs, it goes to the main function and executes the code there
Then, it gets to the user-defined function and continues to run the rest of the program.
Notice that we had to define variables in both functions.

Example 5 : Print all the odd numbers between a set of values



In this example, we had to return -1 if the first number is greater than the second number.
This actually does NOT return -1
It just prints the error message and quits the program.
Sometimes, it is important to quit the program that allow the program to run with errors.
Also, we had to return 0 is the program actually works (if the first number is less than or equal to the second number).
This does NOT actually return 0
It just ensures that the program runs successfully.
We had to write it this way because out output is likely a list or an array of numbers; rather than a single value.
We could also write it in a way to return it as an array, but we shall discuss Arrays in the next module.
So, for now; this works.
You can also display the odd numbers in a new line.
However, we just decided to display them in a single line seprated by commas so you see another way we can display the output.

Student: Is there any case where we have to return an actual single value?
Teacher: Yes of course.
Let us do an example of such case.

Discriminant of a Quadratic Trinomial (no worries, we do not discriminate lol)
The formula for the discriminant of a quadratic trinomial is found here: (include the website)

Example 6 : Calculate the discriminant of a Quadratic Trinomial in General Form



Notice that we still needed to output the return the function using the cout command.

Some Substantive Posts

(1.) Using Example 6, include a condition that asks the user if the quadratic trinomial is in general form.
If the user says no, ask the user to arrange the quadratic trinomial in general form before prceeding. Then, quit the program.
If the user says yes, then proceed to run the program.

Arithmetic: Questions (2.) through (5.)
Please review the Definitions of Numbers on Numbers website: Numbers and Notations
(https://numbersandnotations.appspot.com/#definitions)
Please make sure you indicate the type of number in your comments.

(2.) Write a function that prints any of those types of numbers between one and thirty ($1$ and $30$ are included)

(3.) Write a function that prints the first thirty numbers of any of those types of numbers.
Focus on the first positive thirty numbers of those kind of numbers.

(4.) Write a function that asks the user to input two values (those values could be positive, zero or negative)
The function should print all the numbers for any of those types of numbers between those two values.
Those two values should be included if they are part of those type of numbers.

(5.) Write a function that asks the user to put in a value (that value could be positive, zero, or negative)
The function should print thirty values of those types of numbers up to and including the user-input value.

Geometry: Questions (6.) and (7.)
Please review the Mensuration Formulas on Mensuration website: Mensuration
(https://www.samuelchukwuemeka.com/Mensuration/mensuration.html)
Please make sure you indicate the type of figure/shape in your comments.

(6.) Write a function that asks the user to input the required parameters for any two-dimensional figure.
The function should return the area and perimeter of that figure.

(7.) Write a function that asks the user to input the required parameters for any three-dimensional figure.
The function should return the surface area and volume of that figure.

Strings/Quotes: Questions (8.) and (9.)
Find a quote from any of your favorite authors or your favorite quote.
If you do not have any favorite author or a favorite quote, make up a quote yourself, and indicate that it is your own quote.

(8.) Write a function that prints all the vowels in that quote, and returns the count.

(9.) Write a function that prints all the consonants in that quote, and returns the count.

Textbook Questions
(10.) C++ Variables:
Question (24.) on Page 463

(11.) Statistics:
Question (12.) on Page 456

For those who do not mind messing around with several languages at the same time
Student: Excuse me, Mr. C
This course is only for C++
What do you mean?
Teacher: You are correct.
But, these subsequent questions are not for everyone.
That is the reason I am putting them at the end.
I have a question for you.
Have you ever seen any IT/Computer Science position that requires the knowledge of only one programming language?
Student: I have not checked, Sir.
Teacher: If you intend to be in the IT/Programming field for the long run, at least four (four or more) languages are required.
If you look for IT positions at Indeed.com or other career/job websites, you will realize what I mean.
Search for c++ programmer, you might be surprised that even for entry level positions for a C++ Programmer; they require you to have a working knowledge of several other programming languages.
Mr. C is preparing you for that...if you intend to work in the programming field for a long time.
Besides, this is a critical thinking approach.
I am required to develop and promote critical thinking questions for my students.
A programmer is basically a problem-solver irrespective of the programming language used to solve the problem.
Yes, we are working with C++ However, if you find out that C# would be better in solving a particular problem in your workplace, then you need to use C# unless your employer says otherwise.
The knowledge of several languages is a good asset. It makes you highly valuable.
Further, anyone who attempts any of the subsequent questions will still have to write the program in C++ and get the same result.
The questions and solutions are in another language.
But the student will have to write the program in C++ and come up with the same solution. So, we are still on track.
It is critical thinking...multiple approaches to solving a question.
Be it as it may, these subsequent questions are not required.
It is okay even if you do not look at them. 😊

C# Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
C# Function: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/csharp-exercises/function/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(12.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Java Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
Java Methods: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/java-exercises/method/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(13.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution
Submit clear screenshots.

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) Review the post (Discuss Questions) done by your colleagues.
Use a different statement to work on the same function used by your colleague.
For example: if your colleague used an iteration statement in a function, you may use a conditional statement or a jump statement or a different iteration statement to write the same function to give the same output.

(2.) Review the post (Discuss Questions and Assess Questions) done by your colleagues.
If your colleague developed a console application for a program, develop a desktop application for the same program.
If your colleague developed a desktop application for a program, develop a console application for the same program.

(3.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

Algebra: Questions (1.) through (4.)
(1.) Please review the Roots of a Quadratic Equation on the Expressions and Equations website: Quadratic Equations
(www.expressions-equations.appspot.com/#quadraticEquations)
There is a calculator I developed that calculates the roots of a quadratic equation and displays a message.

(I.) Write a function that requests the user to input the three values: (as seen on my calculator), and display the same message that is displayed by my calculator.
In other words, the output and message from your calculator should be the same as the output and message from my calculator when the user inputs those three values.
Test your program for each of the four cases of the discriminant regarding the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation as seen in Numbers (1a.), (1b.), (2.) and (3.) on my website.

(II.) Submit clear screenshots of your program.

(III.) Submit clear screenshots of the output of your program for the four cases.

(IV.) Submit clear screenshots of the output of my calculator for the four cases.

(III.) and (IV.) should display the same messages.

(2.) Algebra:
Question (28.) on Page $464$ of your textbook.

(3.) Algebra:
Question (16.) on Page $458$ of your textbook.

(4.) Algebra: Piecewise Functions
Question (14.) on Page $457$ of your textbook.

Vocabulary Words

data, array, list, container, data container, index, element, member, iterators, For Loop, While Loop, Do-While Loop, Range-based For Loop, length, size, sort, sorting techniques,

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss arrays.
(2.) Sort arrays.
(3.) Write programs that use arrays.
(4.) Pass arrays as function parameters.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Tutorials by cplusplus.com: Arrays and Character sequences
(https://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/arrays/)

(3.) Tutorials by w3schools: Arrays
(https://www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_arrays.asp)

(4.) Tutorials by Microsoft: Arrays(C++)
(https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/cpp/arrays-cpp?view=msvc-170)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Array in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(6.) Type C++ Array in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

An array is a list or data container that contains the values of the same data type.
This means that an array holds or contains data values of the same data type.
So, an array can contain five integers or five strings or five floats or five doubles among others.
Notice that the values have to be the same data type.
The size or length of the array must be a an integer/constant expression and must be determined before the program runs, because arrays are blocks of static memory.

The dimension of an array is the direction in which one can specify the elements of the array.
Example:
Record the ages of the students in Mr C's class.
We have only one variable: age.
This is a one-dimensional array...array of integers
A one-dimensional array is also known as a single-dimensional array.

Each student in Mr. C's class takes at least one course this semester.
Record the number of courses taken by each student in Mr. C's class.
Some of the courses are one-credit, two-credit, three-credit, four-credit courses.
Assume the tuition for each course depends on the number of credit units.
Calculate the total cost of all the courses taken by all the students in Mr. C's class.
For us to do this, we need to list the number of courses taken by each student in Mr. C's class. We can represent this in the column.
We also need to calculate the cost of the courses taken by each student. We can represent this in the row.
So, we have two variables: courses and cost.
This is a two-dimensional array.
The column is the array of integers ... the number of courses.
The row is the array of doubles ... the cost of the number of courses taken by each student.
We can then find the total cost...connect this explanation with Matrices in Algebra
In this module, we are only concerned with one-dimensional array.

The rank of an array is the number of dimensions in the array.
This implies that the rank of a one-dimensional array is 1
The rank of a two-dimensional array is 2
The rank of a three-dimensioanl array is 3 and so on and so forth.

Why Are We Learning Arrays?
Assume you want to work with five different integers; rather than declare five different variables for the five integers, it is much better to declare a single integer array that will contain all five integers.

An array is declared/defined as follows:
dataType  arrayName [array length] = {array elements};

OR

dataType  arrayName [] = {array elements};
(We must not indicate the length of the array)

OR

dataType  arrayName [array size] {array elements};
(The equal sign can be omitted as seen in this case)

Explain 1: int numbers[5] declares an array named numbers containing five integers
int numbers[5] = {1, 3, 7, 9, 10}; Notice that:
The size of an array is the length of the array
Array size or Array length is enclosed within square brackets

The element of an array is the member of the array.
Array elements or Array members are enclosed within curly brackets or braces

The index of an array element is the position of the array element.
By default, arrays are zero-indexed.
This implies that: the index of the first element is zero; the position of the second member is 1; the position of the third member is 2; the index of the fourth element is 3; and so on and so forth.

Please note: The position/index of the elements is counted from zero rather than one.

This means that:
The index of the element, $1$ is $0$
The index of the element, $3$ is $1$
The index of the element, $7$ is $2$
The index of the element, $9$ is $3$
The index of the element, $10$ is $4$

We can output the index/position of an array by:
array[index] = element
This means that:

                            numbers[0] = 1 
                            numbers[1] = 3 
                            numbers[2] = 7
                            numbers[3] = 9
                            numbers[4] = 10
                        

For an array of size, $n$;
the index of the first element of the array is $0$ and
the index of the last element of the array is $n - 1$

Explain 2: int numbers[] declares an array of as many integers as you want to put into it (without bound)
We shall explore the use of this case.

NOTE: The elements of a string array must be declared using double quotes

What we have discussed so far are one-dimensional arrays
We also have multi-dimensional arrays.
However, in this module; our focus in on one-dimensional arrays.

Printing an Array
Iteration Statements are used to print the elements of an array.
In Module 5, we did the first three Iteration Statements: For Loop, While Loop, and the Do-While Loop.
In this module, we shall use the Range-based For Loop.
Range-based For Loop
The general syntax of a Range-based For Loop is:

                            for (dataType variable : arrayName)
                            {
                        	    statement;
                            }
                        

Example 1: Array of the perfect squares of the first positive ten integers
Declare an array of a specified size without the elements
Include elements in the array by using array index
Print the array using the different types of iteration statements: for loop, while loop, do-while loop, and range-based for loop





Teacher: Did you notice any difference between the range-based for loop and the other iterators?
Student: Well, I think you did not use the length of the array for the range-based for loop
But you used it for the other loops
Teacher: That is correct.
Another difference is that the range-based for loop does not use a counter, while the other loops do.

Determining the Length/Size of an Array
There are at least three approaches to determining the size of an array.
We demonstrated the first approach in Example 1: size(array)
This approach require that we include the array library or the algorithm library
Then, we use the size function

Let us review the second approach of finding the length of an array.
This approach uses a formula.
We do not need to include any additional library besides the input-output stream library

Example 2: Second Approach to determine the length of an array
Given an array of the first seven negative integers
Print the third element of the array
Determine the length of the array


Example 3: Third Approach to determine the length of an array
This approach require that we include the Iterator library or the array library
Then, we have to subtract the index of the first element from the index of the last element


Student: So, if we replaced the iterator library with the array library, the program will still work?
Teacher: Yes, the program will display the same output.
Student: This approach deals with an arithmetic operation just like the second approach.
I think the best approach is the first approach.
Just have to remember to include the array library
Teacher: That is correct.
We have another way to determine the length of an array...using Pointers
Student: What is a pointer?
Is that method easier?
Teacher: A pointer is a form of an iterator
We shall discuss it in details in the next module.
Let us review an example.

Example 4: Fourth Approach to determine the length of an array
This approach uses Pointers.
Length of array = *(&array + 1) - array
Include the iterator library or the array library


Student: This approach is the worst approach.
Teacher: Well, it will not be that bad when we discuss Pointers
However, it is not the easiest approach.

When we declare an array of a specific size; we can include some elements as we declare the array and include the remaining elements later.
In other words, we can add elements to an existing array provided the remaining elements would not exceed the size of the array at declaration.
Say we want a seven-member array.
We shall declare an array length of seven
Let us include four elements at declaration.
Then, we can include the remaining three elements to the array.

Example 5: Add elements to an existing array.
Print the array.


We can replace element(s) in an existing array.
We just have to use array index to replace the element(s).

Example 6: Replace elements in an existing array.


We can remove elements from an existing array.
Example 7: Remove elements in an array.
We remove/delete an element from an array by setting the index of that element to an empty array

Sorting Techniques

One of the important topics in Data Structures and Algorithms is Sorting Techniques
C++ has a sort already. We shall be using it.
However, you are expected to write functions for several sorting techniques.
You will be given the algorithm and pseudocode for each technique; then expected to write a function that will sort an array using that technique.

To use the sort function in C++, we have to include the algorithm library.
This library also takes care of the size of the array.
In Example 1 where we used the array library to determine the size, alternatively; we can use the algorithm library.

Let us sort an array of integers in an ascending order (from least to greatest) using the C++ sort function.
The C++ sort function where the sorting is done in ascending order is:

sort(array, array + arraySize)

Example 8: Sort an array of integers in ascending order.



To sort the array in descending order, we need to include a third argument in the sort function.
The C++ sort function where the sorting is done in descending order is:

sort(array, array + arraySize, greater<dataType of array>())

Example 9: Sort an array of integers in descending order.



Example 10: Sort an array of strings.





Student: Mr. C
Just to be sure...
Because sometimes you declare several variables
And sometimes you use only variable
It can be confusing at times
So, the same variable that you used in the array and the sorted array: name
You used it because it was declared inside the loop?
So, it is only known within the loop? It is not known outside the loop...is that right?
Teacher: That is correct
Student: So, if I try to use that variable outside the loop, the program will not recognize it?
Teacher: That is correct
Student: But why did you not declare several variables like you did in the previous example?
Teacher: It is just a choice
You can declare several variables if you wish.

Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics with C++

Statistics comprises Data Analysis.
Data Analysis is part of Data Science.
Data Science is part of Computer Science/Programming.
As a programmer, it is very likely that you will deal with data.
In this course, we shall focus only on some of the Descriptive Statistics of Data Analysis.

The Descriptive Statistics that we shall discuss in this course are:

(1.) Measures of Center: Also known as the Measures of Central Tendency
They are the: Mean, Median, Mode, and Midrange.

(2.) Measures of Spread: Also known as the Measures of Dispersion or the Measures of Variability or the Measures of Variation
For this course, we shall focus on the: Range, Variance, and Standard Deviation.

(3.) Measures of Position: Also known as the Measures of Location
For this course, we shall focus on the: Five Number Summary of Data
They are the: Minimum, First Quartile, Second Quartile, Third Quartile, and Maximum.
The First Quartile is also known as the Lower Quartile or the 25th Percentile
The Second Quartile is also known as the Median or the Middle Quartile or 50th Percentile
The Third Quartile is also known as the Upper Quartile or 75th Percentile

Let us write program examples of descriptive statistics using C++
The formulas used are the formulas on the Descriptive Statistics website
(1.) Formulas for the Measures of Center
(2.) Formulas for the Measures of Variation
(3.) Formulas for the Measures of Location

Example 11: Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics of Raw Ungrouped Data with C++











Let us do an example that uses an Input-Output Feature
Ask the user how many numeric values that he/she would like to enter.
Store the values in an array.
In this case, it is better to write a function.
Write that a function that computes the descriptive statistics of the array.

Array as Parameters

Some Substantive Posts

TextBook Questions
(1.) Question (1.) on Page 604

(2.) Question (2.) on Page 604

(3.) Question (3.) on Page 604

(4.) Question (4.) on Page 605

For Questions (5.) and (6.); Review these Sorting Techniques and Algorithms
(https://www.samdomforpeace.com/DataStructures/Sorting.html)

(5.) Write a function (user-defined function) that sorts an array in ascending order using any of the techniques.
Use an array size of at least 3 (array size $\ge 3$).
Specify the technique.

(6.) Write a function (user-defined function) that sorts an array in descending order using any of the techniques.
Use an array size of at least 3 (array size $\ge 3$).
Specify the technique.

(7.) Write a function (user-defined or system-defined function) that divides an even-sized unsorted array into two equal halves, sorts the first half in ascending order, and sorts the second half in descending order.
Use any even size of at least 8 (array size $\ge 8$).

(8.) Write a function (user-defined or system-defined function) that divides an even-sized unsorted array into two equal halves, sorts the first half in descending order, and sorts the second half in ascending order.
Use any even size of at least 8 (array size $\ge 8$).

C++ Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
C++ Array: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/cpp-exercises/array/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(9.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write clear comments for each line of code in the Solution.
Run the program.

For those who do not mind messing around with several languages at the same time
Student: Excuse me, Mr. C
This course is only for C++
What do you mean?
Teacher: You are correct.
But, these subsequent questions are not for everyone.
That is the reason I am putting them at the end.
I have a question for you.
Have you ever seen any IT/Computer Science position that requires the knowledge of only one programming language?
Student: I have not checked, Sir.
Teacher: If you intend to be in the IT/Programming field for the long run, at least four (four or more) languages are required.
If you look for IT positions at Indeed.com or other career/job websites, you will realize what I mean.
Search for c++ programmer, you might be surprised that even for entry level positions for a C++ Programmer; they require you to have a working knowledge of several other programming languages.
Mr. C is preparing you for that...if you intend to work in the programming field for a long time.
Besides, this is a critical thinking approach.
I am required to develop and promote critical thinking questions for my students.
A programmer is basically a problem-solver irrespective of the programming language used to solve the problem.
Yes, we are working with C++ However, if you find out that C# would be better in solving a particular problem in your workplace, then you need to use C# unless your employer says otherwise.
The knowledge of several languages is a good asset. It makes you highly valuable.
Further, anyone who attempts any of the subsequent questions will still have to write the program in C++ and get the same result.
The questions and solutions are in another language.
But the student will have to write the program in C++ and come up with the same solution. So, we are still on track.
It is critical thinking...multiple approaches to solving a question.
Be it as it may, these subsequent questions are not required.
It is okay even if you do not look at them. 😊

Java Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
Java Array: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/java-exercises/array/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(10.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution

C# Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
C# Array: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/csharp-exercises/array/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(11.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution

JavaScript Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
JavaScript Array: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/javascript-exercises/javascript-array-exercises.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(12.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution

JavaScript Programming Exercises, Practice, Solution by W3Resource
Please review:
JavaScript Searching and Sorting Algorithm: Exercises, Practice, Solution
(https://www.w3resource.com/javascript-exercises/searching-and-sorting-algorithm/index.php)
You are provided with the Questions and the Solutions.
No more than one student may do any specific question.

(13.) Write the Question as a comment in your program. Include the Title and the Question Number.
Write the program in C++
Run the program. Please make sure your program output is the same solution

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) If your collegue used a for-loop in the program, please rewrite the same program to give the same output using a while loop or do-while loop or range-based loop

(2.) If your colleague did not use a function in the program, please use a function with the array and rewrite the same program to give the same output.

(3.) If your colleague used a function but did not use array as a parameter, please use the function and the array as a parameter, and rewrite the same program to give the same output.

(4.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

For Questions (1.) through (4.), you may develop a console application or a desktop application.

(1.) Please review the Solved Examples on the Measures of Center
Find any question that has Ungrouped Data with frequency.
(a.) Write a program that computes the measures of center for that question.
Test the program output with the results on the Descriptive Statistics Calculators
(b.) Solve the question.
Check your answer with the solution on the website.

(2.) Please review the Solved Examples on the Measures of Spread
Find any question that has Ungrouped Data with frequency.
(a.) Write a program that computes the measures of dispersion for that question.
Test the program output with the results on the Descriptive Statistics Calculators
(b.) Solve the question.
Check your answer with the solution on the website.

(3.) Please review the Solved Examples on the Measures of Position
Find any question that has Ungrouped Data with frequency.
(a.) Write a program that computes the measures of location for that question.
Test the program output with the results on the Descriptive Statistics Calculators
(b.) Solve the question.
Check your answer with the solution on the website.

(4.) Please review the Solved Examples on Descriptive Statistics
Find any question that has Ungrouped Data with frequency.
(a.) Write a program that computes the measures of center and/or the measures of variability and/or the measures of position for that question.
Test the program output with the results on the Descriptive Statistics Calculators
(b.) Solve the question.
Check your answer with the solution on the website.

Vocabulary Words

vary, variable, data type, data value, value, container,

Objectives

Students will:

(1.)
(2.)

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Pointers and Dynamic Memory
(https://www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/pointers/)

(3.) References and Pointers
(https://www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_references.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ References and Pointers in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ References and Pointers in the search bar and view the results.

Required Readings

Some Substantive Posts

(1.)

Some Substantive Responses

Check Your Understanding

(1.)

There are three options for your Final Exam.
Please choose only one option.

Option 1 (Combo Option: Final Exam and Final Project)

This option is based on your textbook (MindTap course).
This implies that it is not free.
However, you have two-weeks free access. So, it is free if you can complete all the graded assessments in two weeks.

Please click the Gradebook and complete all the assessments there.
The assessments that are automatically graded count for the Final Exam.
The assessments that are to be manually graded count for the Final Project.

Access the MindTap Course
Course Key: MTPQ5FCQWR2M

Option 2 (Course Summary)

This exam is designed to assess your understanding of the advanced C# concepts.

You have reviewed several topics and several concepts in each topic for eight modules.
Pick at least $1$ concept in at least $1$ topic in each of the $8$ modules.
That gives at least $8$ concepts in $8$ different topics in $8$ modules.
Find two more concepts in any topic in any module.
That gives $10$ concepts.

For each concept, please:

(1.) Write at least three sentences about that concept.

(2.) Develop a program about that concept.
In other words, write at least one code example about the concept.
Run the code.
Display the output.
Submit clear screenshots of your program (code and output)

Deliverables:
(1.) $10$ concepts in $10$ different topics for $8$ modules
Please write the: Module number, the Topic, and the Concept
(2.) Three sentences for each concept.
(3.) Code for each concept.
(4.) Output for each concept.

Please submit all these information as a zipped folder (.zip only) in the Final Exam folder of the Blackboard course.

Option 3: CPA – C++ Certified Associate Programmer Certification

There are four options for your Final Project.
Please choose only one option.

Option 1 (Combo Option: Final Exam and Final Project)

This option is based on your textbook (MindTap course).
This implies that it is not free.
However, you have two-weeks free access. So, it is free if you can complete all the graded assessments in two weeks.

Please click the Gradebook and complete all the assessments there.
The assessments that are automatically graded count for the Final Exam.
The assessments that are to be manually graded count for the Final Project.

Access the MindTap Course
Course Key: MTPQ5FCQWR2M

Option 2: (Your Choice)

It is important you communicate with me for approval prior to doing this project.
Because the course deals with only desktop applications and console applications, (rather than web applications and mobile applications), you may not do any project that requires a web server such as contact forms and registration forms among others.

The final project is designed to assess problem-solving skills using the knowledge you have acquired in the course.
In that regard, solving at least a real-world problem using the knowledge gained in the course is expected.

(1.) Think about any of these companies: our Institution: Kent State University; your local campus; your work place; public and private schools (excluding home schools); organizations, firms, and businesses (excluding controversial firms and the like).
Any company you choose should have a verifiable website.
The direct link of the company's website is required.

(2.) Identify a problem on the website that you want to solve.
The problem must be solved by programming using the knowledge acquired from any of the course topics/concepts/description/learning objectives.
Think about your Midterm Project. You solved a problem: calculating bills, federal taxes, etc.

(3.) Develop the computer program to solve the problem.
Test the program to ensure that it works.
Write detailed comments as applicable.

(4.) Prepare a Documentation Manual/Reflection for the project.
Please cite your sources accordingly.
What is the company?
What is their website?
What problem did you identify?
Did you solve the entire problem or part of the problem?
What course topics/concepts/description/learning objectives did you apply in solving the problem?
How did you solve the problem?
Did you encounter any issues while trying to solve the problem?
Are there any limitations to the project?
Are there any recommendations to the company?

Deliverables:
(1.) Program (all files)
(2.) Clear screenshots of your program (code and output)
(3.) Project Reflection/Documentation Manual

Please submit all these information as a zipped folder (.zip only) in the Final Project folder of the Blackboard course.

Option 3: Descriptive Statistics of Data

The final project is designed to assess your understanding and analysis of data using the knowledge you have acquired in the course.

Please:
(1.) Visit my website on: Descriptive Statistics

(2.) Review the information for a good understanding of Descriptive Statistics. It is highly likely that you have a prior knowledge of this topic. Is that right?

(3.) Click the Project link.

(4.) Review the Project Examples. Ensure you follow all the instructions and directions.

(5.) Complete the Final Project for your course.

(6.) Ask questions. I can help.
If you have any issue at any time and you have reviewed the resources I provided and you cannot fix the issue, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

(7.) Include all these: (documentation of all your Math work and the .exe file) in OneDrive, create a shareable link, and post the link in the Final Project Drafts forum of the course on Blackboard or send to me via email.
You may also upload them directly if you prefer.
I shall review and provide feedback.

(8.) When you are done with your project:
Make sure your executable file runs by itself outside the project folder
If it does run, include these three items: single executable file (that runs by itself outside the folder), the Math documentation (Word document that has the Math part), and the entire project folder, into a folder, zip the folder (.zip extension only) and submit it in the appropriate area of the Blackboard course.
If it does not run, please fix it.
If you cannot fix it, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

NOTE: Any actual project submitted to me via email will not be graded.

Option 4: C++ Desktop Application of your Midterm Project

The final project is designed to assess problem-solving skills using the knowledge you have acquired in the course.
In that regard, solving at least a real-world problem using the knowledge gained in the course is expected.

(1.) Your Midterm Project is a Console Application.
If you did your midterm project very well and you want to develop a C++ desktop application for the same application, please go ahead.
Test the program to ensure that it works.
Write detailed comments as applicable.

(2.) Prepare a Documentation Manual/Reflection for the project.
Please cite your sources accordingly.
What is the company?
What is their website?
What did you do?
Did you encounter any issues?
Are there any limitations to the project?
Are there any recommendations to the company?

Deliverables:
(1.) Executable file.
(2.) Program folder (all folders and files)
(3.) Project Reflection/Documentation Manual

Please submit all these information as a zip file (.zip only) in the Final Project folder of the Blackboard course.

NOTE: Any actual project submitted to me via email will not be graded.

Course Description

Course using C++ classes and data abstraction, stream IO, inheritance, standard template library, Microsoft Foundation Classes, system programming concepts using Unified Modeling Language. Prerequisite: IT 20001

Student Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following:

(1.) Explain the concepts of classes and data abstraction.

(2.) Demonstrate programming techniques, control structures, functions, arrays, pointers, strings, classes, inheritance, stream IO, exception handling, and sequential file processing.

(3.) Employ appropriate data structures.

(4.) Utilize the Unified Modeling Language.

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Write programs that uses vector functions.
(2.) Write programs that demonstrates vector applications.

Vocabulary Words

array, vector, index, size, length, position

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Vector Functions
(https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/vector/vector/)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(3.) Type C++ Vectors in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Vectors in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

Vectors

We concluded the study of arrays. While working with arrays, we were limited in size.
We had to define the size of the array beforehand. In the case that the size was not defined, we had to keep defining a new array in order to add an element to the array.
Vectors have no specific size. We do not need to define the size. We can keep adding and removing elements as needed.
Besides, we cannot declare an empty array. We must not specify the size. However, the array must have at least an element. On the contrary, we can declare an empty vector. We can create a vector that has not element.
Whatever you can do with an array, you can also do with a vector...and more.

Student: I guess size is the important factor when we contrast vectors and arrays?
Teacher: That is correct.

To use vectors, we have to include the vector library, #include<vector>
The first element in a vector is the begin element and the last element is the end element
The indexing of vectors is the same as the indexing of arrays: zero-based indexing. The first element is in the $0th$ position.

A vector is declared/defined as follows:
vector<data type>  vector name
This creates a vector with no elements.

Let us do the same exercises we did with arrays, with vectors and then do more.
Explain 1: vector<int>  numbers declares a vector named numbers containing no numbers
As mentioned earlier, we do not need to declare a size when we define a vector.
We can keep adding or removing elements as we want.
Let's say we want a vector of five integers, just as we did with the array of five integers.
Let us add five integers to the vector.

vector<int>  numbers = {1, 3, 7, 9, 10}; 

Notice that:
The elements of the vector (vector elements or vector members) are enclosed within curly brackets or braces
By default, the index or position of a vector is the same as that of an array (zero-based indexing)

This means that:
The index of element, $1$ is $0$
The index of element, $3$ is $1$
The index of element, $7$ is $2$
The index of element, $9$ is $3$
The index of element, $10$ is $4$
We can output the index/position of a vector by:

vector[index] = element

This means that:

                        numbers[0] = 1 
                        numbers[1] = 3 
                        numbers[2] = 7
                        numbers[3] = 9
                        numbers[4] = 10
                    

For a vector of size, $n$;
the index of the first element of the vector is $0$ and
the index of the last element of the vector is $n - 1$

Example 1: Given a vector of the first seven negative integers
Print the third element of the vector
Determine the length of the vector


Example 2: Given a vector of the first three prime numbers
Let us review some of the ways we can print the elements of the vector
Print the elements of the vector separated with commas using a for loop
Print the elements of the vector in a new line using a range-based for loop
Print the elements of the vector separated with commas using a for loop iterator



Please review the other examples of Vector Functions (Link it: https://www.cplusplus.com/reference/vector/vector/) (vector member functions links on the Left Hand Side of that page).

Let us explore more fuctions.
Create two vectors of integers.
Assign the value of $20$ to five elements of the first vector of integers
Assign the value of $25$ to four elements of the second vector of integers
Perform a relational operation between the vectors
Swap the contents of the vectors.
Perform another relational operation between the vectors. In this case, it is better to use header files to simplify our program.
We shall use two header files: one for the relational operation, and the other for the swap and relational operation
***You may need to Rebuild whenever you make changes, before you Run (If you moved files)***

The Swap function excahnges the contents between two vectors.

The Relational Operation uses comparison operators to compare the size and the corresponding elements of the vectors.
It consists of:
(1.) The equality comparison operator, $==$
This is performed by first comparing sizes.
If the sizes are not equal, the two vectors are not equal.
If the sizes are equal, the corresponding elements are compared beginning with the first elements of both vectors.
If any element does not match a corresponding element, the two vectors are not equal.
If the sizes of both vectors are equal, and all the corresponding elements of both vectors are equal; then the vectors are equal.

(2.) The less-than comparison operator, $\lt$ to compare the corresponding elements sequentially.
It begins with the first element of the first vector and the first element of the second vector.
If the first element of the first vector is less than the first element of the second vector, then the first vector is less than the second vector.
If the first element of the second vector is less than the first element of the second vector, then the second vector is less than the first vector.
If the first element of the first vector is equal to the first element of the second vector, then the second elements of both vectors are compared.
The process continues and stops anytime one element of a vector is less than the corresponding element of the other vector.

(3.) The greater-than comparison operator, $\gt$ to compare the corresponding elements sequentially.
It begins with the first element of the first vector and the first element of the second vector.
If the first element of the first vector is greater than the first element of the second vector, then the first vector is greater than the second vector.
If the first element of the second vector is greater than the first element of the second vector, then the second vector is greater than the first vector.
If the first element of the first vector is equal to the first element of the second vector, then the second elements of both vectors are compared.
The process continues and stops anytime one element of a vector is greater than the corresponding element of the other vector.

(4.) The less-than or equality comparison operator, $\le$:
If the first vector is less than the second vector, then the first vector is less than or equal to the second vector.
Similarly, if the second vector is less than the first vector; then the second vector is also less than or equal to the first vector.

(5.) The greater-than or equality comparison operator, $\le$:
If the first vector is greater than the second vector, then the first vector is greater than or equal to the second vector.
Similarly, if the second vector is greater than the first vector; then the second vector is also greater than or equal to the first vector.

Example 3: Swap and Relational Operators of Vectors






Let us explore the main advantage of vectors over arrays : Size
We do not need to know the size of a vector before we use it.
Write a program that asks a user to enter numerical data of any size.
Let the data be the weights of people (in pounds)
Well, the user will stop after some time...cannot enter data to infinity
In that regard, write a condition that should stop the data if the user enters a zero
Display the size of the data.
Compute the measures of location (five-number summary) of the data.
Explanation and formulas for the Five-Number Summary of Data

Example 4: Application of Vectors: Unspecified Size







We shall discuss more vector applications when we discuss Standard Template Library.

Some Substantive Posts

Please review the examples of Vector Functions (vector member functions links on the Left Hand Side of that page).

(1.) Besides the examples discussed in the reading, please write a program demonstrates any other vector functions.

Explanation and formulas for the Measures of Center and Measures of Spread

(2.) Write a program that demonstrates all the relational operations between two vectors.

(3.) Ask the user to input numerical data of any size.
Define your data.
Compute the measures of center of the data.
Question (3.) counts for both post and response.

(4.) Ask the user to input numerical data of any size.
Define your data.
Compute the measures of spread of the data.
Question (4.) counts for both post and response.

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) Provide a substantive response to the initial post of any of your colleagues.

Check Your Understanding

(1.)

Objectives

Students will:
(1.) Discuss the terms used in object-oriented programming.
(2.) Create a class.
(3.) Create a constructor.
(4.) Implement different constructors.
(5.) Overload constructors.
(6.) Create a destructor (destroy a constructor).
(7.) Discuss the properties of a class
(8.) Implement the various properties in a class.
(9.) Develop a console application that implements classes, objects, constructors, and properties.

Vocabulary Words

object-oriented programming, class, object, namespace, access specifier, scope operator, scope resolution operator, class member, variable, data type, field, property, attribute, method, function, functional form, assignment initialization, uniform initialization, plain old data (POD), get, get accessor, getter, set, set accessor, setter, void, parametized constructor, auto-implemented property, expression-bodied definition property, exceptions, throw an exception, encapsulation, reference, dependency, event, event handler, backing store, command line interface (CLI), backing store, C++/CX (the CX means a set of extensions to the C++ language for the Windows Runtime Environment)

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) Classes (I)
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/classes/) and

Special members
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/classes2/)

(3.) C++ Classes: C++ OOP to C++ Access Specifiers
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_oop.asp)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type Object-oriented Programming in C++ or OOP in C++ in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type Object-oriented Programming in C++ or OOP in C++ in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

Object-oriented Programming

Teacher: So, we discussed data types and variables
We did some work/calculations with the data types and variables.
Our project started to grow.
We needed to lessen codes and reuse codes. Simply put, we wanted to do more with less.
We introduced functions to achieve that goal.
Functions included the data types, variables and the work/calculations done with them.
The project started getting large and popular. It needed to serve more clients.
What should we do?
Can we join data types, variables and functions as a package? Can we reuse that package as much as we want?
The answer is Yes!
Welcome to Classes
Student: Where did the object-oriented come from?
Teacher: Good question.
Remember how we call a function any time we want to use that function?
We shall 'call the class', well create a new instance of the class anytime we want to use that class.
So, whenever we create an instance of the class because we want to use that class, we have created an object
That means that an object is an instance of the class.
Student: So, what you are saying is that an object is simply calling the class in order to use it?
Just like we do in functions?
Teacher: That is correct.
Simply put, creating an object means calling the class.
We can create as many objects as we want by calling a class anytime we want.
The class is a package of data types, variables and functions.
Actually, a class is a package of fields, methods, and properties.
Creating and using objects to develop computer programs is known as object-oriented programming.
Encapsulation is the combination of fields, properties, methods, and events of an object in a class(capsule).
In other words, keep all the data and program logic in one place.
Student: You introduced some words.
Teacher: Yes, I did.
No worries you will get used to them.
The field is the data type and variable.
The field is often referred to as an attribute.
The method is a function
The property allows us to change the fields.
The fields, properties, and methods are referred to as the class members

A class in C++ is declared using the class keyword.
Class names are written in uppercase or Pascal case.
The basic syntax for creating for a class in C++ is:

                    class NameofyourClass 
                    {
                        access specifier:
                            fields;
                    };
                    

Let us do some examples.

What is my first greeting to my students?
Welcome to our IT 36301: Advanced C++ Programming class!
So, let us create a class called ComputerScience
The field in the class will be the greeting. It is a string.

Example 1: Welcome to our IT 36301 Class: Advanced C++ Programming Class!


In this example; we:
Created a class, ComputerScience.
Defined a field in that class, string greeting
Used the access specifier, public with that field in order to access the variable, greeting outside the ComputerScience class.
Created a new instance of the class, otherwise known as an object; student1 in the main class, Program.
Greeted that student object, student1 with the greeting we defined in the ComputerScience class by joining the object with the variable using the member access expression, . (the period punctuation mark).

Student: This is what I don't get.
Why use public?
Teacher: We used public so we could access that variable, greeting outside the class that it was defined.
If we used private, we would not be able to access the variable outside that class.
See what I mean.




We can create two objects (two students) and greet them.


The teacher should greet the student.
Create a class that has three members: two fields and one method.
The teacher and the student should be fields.
The greeting should be the method.
Create an object (an instance of the class) in the main class.
The object in the main class should call the method from the created class so that the teacher greets the student.


In this program, we created and defined the method inside the class.
We can create the method inside the class but define it outside the class.
Then, we create the object and still use that method.
Let us write Example $3$ in another way. We shall still get the same output.


As you noticed, we had to make the method to be public so we could access it outside the class we created.
NOTE: In the case that we define the method outside the class, we have to use the scope resolution operator to connect it to the class.
The scope resolution operator is also known as the scope operator.
It is the two colon symbols ::
It has several uses. However, in this case; it is used to define a class member outside the class.
As you can see; the method, greeting was created inside the class.
But, we defined it outside the class using the scope resolution operator
So, the scope resolution operator is used to define a method outside a class if the method was created inside the class.

Student: What if we decided not to make it public or private?
Teacher: Good question.
In that case, the members would be private.
Class members in C++ are private by default.
Student: So, I guess we have only private and public access specifiers?
Teacher: We have some more.
Let us list them.
Then, we can discuss each of them as we progress through the course.

Access Specifiers

An Access specifier is a keyword used to declare the accessibility of a class member or type.
It is used to control the visibility and security level of a class or class member.
The first name of a person can be made public. However, the person's SSN (social security number) should not be made public.
A person's social security number should shoud of course, be made private.
Similarly, there are some class members that can be made public and there are some that should not be made public.

In C#, we have three access specifiers.
They are:

NOTE:
(1.) If an access specifier is not specified for a class member, that class member is private by default.

Student: What if students want to greet their fellow students?
Teacher: Good question.
This means that we need to expand our program.
As we add more requirements, the program starts getting large.
But, we do need to simplify the program.
So, let us begin by having separate files for this program.
Let us create another file for our class; a header file.
We shall add the header file to our main program.
Let us name that file, ComputerScience.h
So, we will have two files: Classes.cpp (that contains the main method) and ComputerSCience.h (that contains our class: the ComputerScience class).
Keep in mind we already created this class.
We just want to put it in another file so it is separate from the main method.
Then, we can add as many members as we want.
We already demonstrated how to add a header file in Module 6 of the pre-requisite course: Functions
Let us demonstrate another way to add a header file in this module.

The steps in creating the ComputerScience.h class are:
In the Solution Explorer window (the window on the Right Hand Side) of the Visual Studio IDE:
(1.) Right-click the Header Files folder
(2.) Point your mouse on the Add menu
(3.) Click the New Item submenu.
(4.) Click the Header File (.h) submenu under Visual C++.
(5.) Name the header file: ComputerScience.h

Please see images below.











Whenever you make any change in either file; please ensure that you:
(1.) Save All then you
(2.) Build the solution. If the Build succeeded (as should be seen in the message on your computer), then you
(3.) Run the solution.

If there were build errors, you should review the line numbers where those errors occurred, as well the errors.
Fix the errors, build the solution again, and run the solution.

Going forward, we shall be creating and defining our methods inside the class.
But, you may choose to create it inside the class, and define it outside the class. Just be sure not to forget the scope operator.

Back to your question:
We want students to greet themselves.
We already know that Chukwuemeka is the teacher and Samuel is the student.
Let's say we want another student, Dominic.
The teacher would greet the two students, Samuel and Dominic.
Each student will greet the other as well.
In other words:
Chukwuemeka will greet Samuel
Chukwuemeka will greet Dominic
Samuel will greet Dominic
Dominic will greet Samuel
So, we have four greetings of "Welcome to our Class!"




Student: What if we have different names for the teachers and students?
Do we need to keep defining each name as a field when we have a new teacher and new students?
Teacher: Good question.
More functionalities means that we should find a way of achieving the same output with less code.
This leads to...

Constructors

What we can do to address your question is to create a constructor.
A constructor in C++ is a special method that is: always public; has the same name as the class; used to initialize objects; and
does not return values.
Hence, whenever we create an object (the instance of the class), the constructor is called.
The constructor is a method. So, it needs to have an access specifier. That access specifier must be public.
Note that it should have the same name as the class name.
So, you can say that is a special method because it has an access specifier, has the same name as the class name, may or may not have parameters that would be defined as initial variables or values of the class members, and does not return any value.
There is always at least one constructor in every class.
If a class is created without a constructor, the compiler creates a default constructor for that class.

C# constructors are:
(1.) Default Constructor
(2.) Parametized Constructor

Default Constructor

A default constructor is a constructor that has no parameter.
It is a parameterless constructor.
The syntax for a default constructor is:

                                            public:
                                                className()
                                            {
                                            statement;
                                            }
                                        

Let us implement a default constructor

Parametized Constructor

A parametized constructor is a constructor that has at least one parameter.
The syntax for a parametized constructor is:

                                public:
                                    ClassName(parameter1, parameter2, ...)
                                    {
                                    statement;
                                    }
                            

We shall use parametized constructors frequently in the course.
So, we shall create a constructor with the default parameters: teacherName, welcome, student1Name, and student2Name.
These parameters will be new parameters that we shall create. Note that the data type of these parameters would be included as we create them.
We shall define those parameters inside the constructor by assigning the class members (members in the class) to the parameters inside the constructor.
Once we define the constructor in the ComputerScience.h, when we create the object in the Classes.cpp; the constructor is called.
Then, we can assign arguments and output any result we want.
Let us demonstrate what we explained.



Teacher: Do you know the nice thing about using parametized contructors?
Student: I think so.
With parametized constructors, we can easily change the names in the main class.
Teacher: That is correct.
Let's say KSU greets students and faculty on the first day of school.
We need to do minor changes to our code.
Just as we did earlier for a method, we can also declare a constructor inside the class, but define it outside the class using the scope resolution operator
Let us try that with this example.
This would be:

This would be:

Notable Notes for C++ Classes and Constructors: I hope it does not confuse you. It is not my intention to confuse you. It's C++ 😊

(1.) When you define a class, you must put a semicolon at the end of the curly braces of that class.

(2.) When you define a constructor inside a class, do not put a semicolon at the end of the parenthesis containing the parameters.

(3.) When you declare a constructor inside a class, but define it outside the class, you must put a semicolon at the end of the parenthesis containing the parameters inside the class.

(4.) When you declare a constructor inside a class, but define it outside the class using the scope resolution operator, do not put a semicolon at the end of the parenthesis containing the parameters outside the class.

(5.) When you define constructors, do not put a semicolon at the end of the parenthesis containing the parameters.

(6.) When you define constructors, do not put a semicolon at the end of the curly braces of the constructor.

So, the only cases you should be careful are Numbers (1.) and (3.)
The good thing is that several IDEs will display an error if you forget to include the semicolon.

(7.) Do not put parenthesis whenever you create an object that calls the default constructor.
Use parenthesis only when you create an object that calls a parametized constructor

Overloading Constructors

We can overload constructors
This implies that we can create two constructors with the same name but different parameters.
NOTE: This is based on what I have found out.
To overload two or more parametized constructors:
(1.) If you use the same parameter data type and the same number of parameters for one constructor, do not use that same parameter data type and number of parameters for the other constructor (overloaded constructor).
For example: If you use the string data type for three parameters in the first constructor, do not use the string data type and three parameters for the other constructor.
You may use the string and integer data types for three parameters for both constructors (because they are different data types).
In addition, you may use the string data type and three parameters for the first constructor, and the string data type but two parameters for the second constructor (because the number of parameters are different).

(2.) The number of parameters in the constructors must not be the same.

Let us overload two parametized constructors.





Teacher: Did you notice the functionality of overloaded constructors?
We can change the parameters with ease.
We can write a short story/poem/drama about KSU among others.
Student: What if we wanted the parameter data type and the number of parameters in both constructors to be the same?
Can we do that?
Teacher: What do you think?
Student: I don't know. That's why I asked.
Teacher: Yes, we can.
But, one of constructors would be a default constructor and the other constructor would be a parametized constructor.
The default constructor would have fields (with the same data type), rather than parameters.
The parametized constructor would have parameters with the same data type as the fields in the default constructor.
Let's do it.

Let us overload a default constructor and a parametized constructor.

Calling Constructors

Laugh it off: 😊 😊 😊
First constructor, come here....Nigerian way
Second constructor, where are you?...Nigerian way
Third constructor, where ya at?...American way...southern style
Fourth constructor, fourth constructor, fourth constructor!...Nigerian way
Fifth constructor, where art thou?...British way... Okay, B2B (Back to Business)

We can call constructors in four different ways namely:
(1.) Functional form.
This is what we have been using for calling the constructors with no parameter, and one or more parameters.
We enclose the arguments in parenthesis when we create the object.
The syntax is: ClassName object (argument1, argument2, ...)

(2.) Assignment Initialization
This is only used for constructors with only one parameter.
The object is assigned to a single argument/value.
The syntax is: ClassName object = argument

(3.) Uniform Initialization
This is used to call constructors with one or more parameters.
However, the arguments are enclosed in curly braces when we create the object.
The syntax is: ClassName object {argument1, argument2, ...}

(4.) POD-like form (Plain Old Data-like form)
This is used to call constructors with one or more parameters.
However, the object is assigned to arugments in curly braces.
The syntax is: ClassName object = {argument1, argument2, ...}

Let us demonstrate each of those forms.

Properties

A property is a public class member that can read, write, or compute the value of a private field.
Just like a constructor, a property is also a method.
So, it needs an access modifier.
That access modifier must be public.
The accessors are the: get accessor and the set accessor.
In other words, the get and set parts of a property are called accessors.
As mentioned in the previous module: Encapsulation is the combination of fields, properties, methods, and events of an object in a class(capsule).
Encapsulation is also used to hide sensitive data from users.
The main objective of using Properties is for encapsulation in terms of hiding sensitive data from users.
Recall: that a class member is private by default if we do not specify an access modifier for it.
It is also private if we specify the private access modifier for it.
If we need to access that private class member outside the class, we have to use a property.

C++ does not natively support properties.
But, we can still write properties in C++. We shall do.

On the other hand, C++/CX (the CX means a set of extensions to the C++ language for the Windows Runtime Environment) natively supports properties.
We have several properties and types of properties in C++/CX.
To learn about them, and how to use them, please review: Properties and How to Use Properties in in C++/CLI as regards C++/CX

Let us demonstrate the features and functions of properties.
Let us demonstrate the Read-Write property in C++.
Please review the comments in each example for further explanations.
Let us get back to the greeting example.
The teacher greets the student.
We shall use a constructor.
The getter and setter are used. How are they used?
The get keyword and the set keyword are used as prefixes in combination with the name of the property.
Remember that Property names begin with uppercase letters.
You write: getPropertyName and setPropertyName
The get assessor returns the value of the variable name.
The set assessor takes a parameter (new name) and assigns it to the variable name.
Please review the code.
Review the explanations in the comments.

Application: BMI (Body Mass Index)

Please review the BMI information on these two government websites [from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)]
About Adult BMI | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC and
Calculate Your BMI - Standard BMI Calculator

As at today, the 3rd day of September, 2020; the BMI information on both websites are:

NIH website
Calculate Your BMI - Standard BMI Calculator


CDC website
About Adult BMI | Healthy Weight, Nutrition, and Physical Activity | CDC

Formula for Calculating Body Mass Index: United States System (Customary System)

$ BMI = \left(\dfrac{weight}{height * height}\right) * 703 \\[5ex] weight\:\:is\:\:in\:\:pounds (lb) \\[3ex] height\:\:is\:\:in\:\:inches (in) $

Formula for Calculating Body Mass Index: International System (Metric System)

$ BMI = \left(\dfrac{weight}{height * height}\right) \\[5ex] weight\:\:is\:\:in\:\:kilograms (kg) \\[3ex] height\:\:is\:\:in\:\:meters (m) \\[3ex] $ If you need help with conversion of units, please review the Tables and Examples in Measurements and Units

Teacher: What do you notice in both websites?
Student: They both have the information on the BMI.
In addition, the CDC website has information for both Adult BMI and Child & Teen BMI among others.
The NIH website has recommendations among others.
Teacher: That is correct. What else?
Student: They have the BMI calculator.
Teacher: Did you notice any difference in the calculator on both websites?
Student: The NIH website has BMI calculator for both Standard and Metric versions.
The CDC website has the BMI calculator for only the Metric version.
Teacher: Did you notice any issue/concern about the BMI information?
Student: Not really. Why?
Teacher: So, this is what we are going to do.
Let us develop the BMI calculator.
That calculator will calculate the BMI.
Then, we shall interpret that BMI, and make a recommendation.
. The CDC website gave us the formula for calculating the BMI. So, we shall use it.
As you can see, our calculator would have to use conditional statements for the interpretation and recommendation.
But, here is the issue.
Student: Wait, I think I see the issue.
The issue is with the domains.
Teacher: Correct!
Anyone having a BMI between $18.5$ and $24.9$ both endpoints included has a Normal weight.
This is: Normal weight: [18.5, 24.9]. It is a closed interval (relate with Mathematics).
So, the Overweight range for the BMI should be the weight greater than $24.9$, (rather than beginning from $25$) and ending at $29.9$
For the Overweight range, the first endpoint is not included, but the second endpoint is included.
This is: Overweight: (24.9, 29.9]. It is a half-open half-closed interval (relate with Mathematics)
Teacher: Do you know why this would be a problem if the programmer does not fix these issues before developing the calculator?
Student: Yes. Because there would not be any interpretation for anyone whose BMI is between $24.9$ and $25$
But, I do see that the BMI information is for values rounded to one decimal place.
Teacher: That is correct.
And we shall develop our calculator to round to one decimal place.
But, it is important we fix the issues.
What if we do not want to round?
Look at the two examples on the CDC website. The BMI values were rounded to two decimal places.
If we developed our calculator to round to two decimal places with the information on those websites "as is"; then we would not have the interpretation and recommendation for those two examples ($24.98$ and $24.96$) because those values are greater than $24.9$ but less than $25$.
Student: That makes sense.
So, the last one: Obese should be BMI greater than $29.9$, rather than greater than $30$?
Teacher: That is correct.

So far, we discussed:
(1.) Methods (Functions) in C# Programming
(2.) Introduction to Object-oriented Programming (Classes, Constructors, and Objects) in Module 1.
(3.) Properties in this module: Module 2.

Let us apply what we learned so far.
We shall develop a console application and a desktop application for the Body Mass Index (BMI) calculator.

(1.) The program should accept user inputs of:
(I.) First name
(II.) Last name
(III.) Weight
(IV. Height

(2.) The program should output the:
(A.) BMI value
(B.) Interpretation
(C.) Recommendation

(3.) The program should address user-input errors of non-positive numbers for the weight and the height.
Inform the user.
Then, exit the program without causing it to crash.

Process for the Console Application

(1.) We shall create a new project: Module2
The main file (the file that contains the main method) will be named Module2.cpp

(2.) Because the first name and the last name is not needed in the calculation, we shall ask for the user input of first name and last name in the main method

(3.) We shall create a header file under the project.
I prefer creating class in a header file and including it in the main method of Module2.cpp, rather than creating the class inside the Module2.cpp.
I like to separate my programs. However, do what you prefer.
So, we shall create a header file, BodyMassIndex.h and create the class, BodyMassIndex in that header file.
Then, we shall include the header file in Module2.cpp

Teacher: You know something I learned in America...as regards dating?
Student: What is it?
Teacher: You should not ask a woman her weight.
Student: LOL. Is that all you learned?
Teacher: Another thing is that you should not ask a woman her age.
But, a woman can ask a man his age.
Student: That is correct. In America, you do not ask a woman her weight or her age.
Teacher: Is that not double standard?
Anyway...B2B (back to business)

(4.) We shall create two fields: weight and height for our class: BodyMassIndex
Because we shall associate the weight and height with the user's first name and last name, we shall declare these fields as private.
Be reminded that even if you do not specify an access modifier for the fields, they are declared as private by default.
However, it is good practice to specify access modifiers.

(5.) We shall create public properties for these private fields so we can access them.
Because the setter does not return anything, we need to use the void data type for it.
The setter does have the parameter of the double data type of the variable corresponding to each field.
We shall use the double data type in the getter to return each field.

(6.) We shall create a parametized constructor that will initialize the class fields.
Here is something to note: Use the same parameter that you used in each setter as the parameters for the constructor.
Assign the fields to the constructor parameters.

(7.) We shall create a method: BodyMassIndexDetails
This method is necessary to calculate the BMI.
We need to add some checks to make sure that only positive values are entered for the user input weight and height.
Zero and negative values should not be allowed.

No worries. We shall disuss Exception Handling in details in another module. For now, please learn a simple way of doing that check in this application.

In addition, we shall interpret the BMI and make recommendation based on the calculated BMI value.
We shall create three more variables in the method: one variable for calculating the BMI; another variable for interpreting the BMI; and the third variable for recommendation based on the BMI.

(8.) Go to the main method in the Module2.cpp and ask for user input of the first name, last name, weight, and height
NOTE:
We will declare variables for: first name, last name, weight, and height in the Main method.
However, we shall use the constructor parameters as the same variables for weight and height
In other words: our constructor parameters are: weightPounds and heightInches
We shall use that weightPounds and heightInches as our variables.
Also: we shall use that weightPounds and heightInches as the arguments when we create the object.

Recap:
We shall use weightPounds and heightInches and their data types as the parameters for the constructor in our BodyMassIndex class.
We shall use the same weightPounds and heightInches and their data types when we declare variables in the Main method.
We shall still use the same weightPounds and heightInches (without the data types) as our arguments in our object.

Create the object: calculateBMI
Display your summary and make it look nice.
To underline anything in the console window:
\x1B[4m is the code to underline.
\x1B[0m is the code to end the underline (reset).
Use the object to call the method.

(9.) Test your program for each piece/case.
In other words, test your program to ensure that the calculation, interpretation, and recommendation is correct for all the BMI options.
You may also test the examples on the CDC website.

(10.) Test your program to check for user input errors.

Please see the images.
Review the comments.









Results:


Check for User Input Error:

Some Substantive Posts

(1.) Write a program for a scenario/case/example where you would:
(I.) Implement any of the constructors that we discussed.
(II.) Use a combination of at least two different data types for the class fields. This implies that you should have at least two class fields of different data types.

(2.) Write a program that overloads at least two constructors.

(3.) Review the last example on Calling Constructors.
Look at this screenshot


How can you fix the two warnings?
Fix the warnings.
Run the program.
Display the same output.

(4.) Review Member initialization in constructors
Write a program that demonstrates member initialization in constructors.
Run your program.
Display the output.

(5.) Review Pointers to classes
Write a program that demonstrates pointers to classes using all those expressions.
Run your program.
Display the output.

(6.) Review Overloading operators
Write a program that demonstrates the overloading of operators to classes of vectors (no structures please: the struct keyword).
Run your program.
Display the output.

(7.) As we mentioned earlier, C++/CX natively supports properties.
However, we did not discuss those properties.
Review these websites regarding Properties and How to Use Properties in in C++/CLI as regards C++/CX
Write programs that demonstrates each kind of property and type of property.
Run your programs.
Send the screenshots of each output.

For Questions (8.) and (9.)
Class, Property, Constructor, Method

(I.) Consider any concept/scenario that uses conditional statements.
Use at least two (two or more) different conditions.
The BMI Calculator has four different conditions.
But, please use any application that has at least two different conditions.
(II.) Accept user input(s).
(III.) Use a class you created.
(IV.) Use at least one private field.
(V.) Use properties that should access that private field.
(VI.) Use at least one method.
(VII.) Include some checks for user input errors.
(VIII.) Test your program and display the result/output for each condition.
(IX.) Test your program for user-input errors.
(X.) Submit all the screenshots in your DB 2 forum on Blackboard.

(8.) Develop a console application for your concept.

(9.) Develop a desktop application for your concept.

Some Substantive Responses

(1.) If your colleague developed only a console application, develop the desktop application for that concept.

(2.) If your colleague developed only a desktop application, develop the console application for that concept.

(3.) Other substantive responses.

Check Your Understanding

For Question (1.)
Class, Property, Constructor, Method

(I.) Consider any concept/scenario that uses conditional statements.
Use at least two (two or more) different conditions.
The BMI Calculator has four different conditions.
But, please use any application that has at least two different conditions.
(II.) Accept user input(s).
(III.) Use a class you created.
(IV.) Use at least one private field.
(V.) Use properties that should access that private field.
(VI.) Use at least one method.
(VII.) Include some checks for user input errors.
(VIII.) Test your program and display the result/output for each condition.
(IX.) Test your program for user-input errors.
(X.) Submit all the screenshots in your DB 2 forum on Blackboard.

(1.) Develop a console application and a desktop application for your concept.
One application will count for DB Post.
The other application will count for DB Response.
You do not need to respond to the initial post of another colleague.
Please specify which one should count for DB Post and DB Response.

(2.) Develop a console application for an extension of my concept (the BMI application).
I did the application for the United States System (Customary System).
Extend the application by developing the calculator for the International System (Metric System).
The formula is on the screenshot.
Ask the user which system he/she wants to use to calculate the BMI.
Based on the user's selection, display the appropriate units for the weight and the height, as well as the output.
Test all the conditions for both systems.

(3.) Develop a desktop application for an extension of my concept (the BMI application).
I did the application for the United States System (Customary System).
Extend the application by developing the calculator for the International System (Metric System).
The formula is on the screenshot.
Ask the user which system he/she wants to use to calculate the BMI.
Your desktop application should have the dropdown list for both systems, but should be null be default.
Based on the user's selection, display the appropriate units for the weight and the height, as well as the output.
Test all the conditions for both systems.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(2.) Type C++ Exception and/or C++ Exception Handling in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(3.) Type C++ Exception and/or C++ Exception Handling in the search bar and view/read the results.

Midterm Project

The midterm project is designed to assess your knowledge of Object-oriented Programming in solving real-world problems.
It is a Piecewise Function application.
Any other application will not considered.

Please:
(1.) Visit my website on: Piecewise Functions

(2.) Read the Story to understand the idea of Piecewise functions.

(3.) Read the Overview of Piecewise Functions for more understanding of Piecewise functions.

(4.) Study the Applications of Piecewise Functions

(5.) Review the Project Examples. Ensure you follow all the instructions and directions.

(6.) Review the Midterm Project rubric for your course.

(7.) Complete the Midterm Project for your course.

(8.) Ask questions. I can help.
If you have any issue at any time and you have reviewed the resources I provided and you cannot fix the issue, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

(9.) (7.) Include all these: (documentation of all your Math work and the .exe file) in OneDrive, create a shareable link, and post the link in the Midterm Project Drafts forum of the course on Blackboard or send to me via email.
You may also upload them directly if you prefer.
I shall review and provide feedback.

(10.) When you are done with your project:
Make sure your executable file runs by itself outside the project folder
If it does run, include these three items: single executable file (that runs by itself outside the folder), the Math documentation (Word document that has the Math part), and the entire project folder, into a folder, zip the folder (.zip extension only) and submit it in the appropriate area of the Blackboard course.
If it does not run, please fix it.
If you cannot fix it, please attend the Office Hours/Live Sessions so I can help you.

NOTE: Any actual project submitted to me via email will not be graded.

If you wish to save some time for research:
Please review the Piecewise Function projects done by my previous students.
The direct link of the verifiable websites are included.
(I.) VB Projects
(II.) C# Projects
(III.) C++ Projects
(IV.) Java Projects

You may not do any same application done by any of my previous students for C++
You may do any Piecewise Function application not done by any of my previous students for C++
If you are not sure what project you may or may not do, please contact me via the school email.

Vocabulary Words

inherit, inheritance, friend, friend functions, friend classes, behavior, data, class members, colon symbol :, parent class, base class, superclass, child class, derived class, extended class, subclass, final keyword, virtual keyword, override keyword, interface, abstract class, single inheritance, multiple inheritance, multilevel inheritance, transitive inheritance, concrete class, interface, abstract class

Objectives

Students will:

(1.) Discuss the inheritance of a class.
(2.) Discuss polymorphism in object-oriented programming.
(3.) Write programs that demonstrate the inheritance of a class.
(4.) Write programs that demonstrate polymorphism.

Recommended Readings and Videos

(1.) Textbook Chapter

(2.) C++ Inheritance
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_inheritance.asp) and
C++ Polymorphism
(www.w3schools.com/cpp/cpp_polymorphism.asp)

(3.) Friendship and Inheritance
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/inheritance/) and
Polymorphism
(www.cplusplus.com/doc/tutorial/polymorphism/)

Videos:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the LinkedIn Learning (Kent State University) link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(4.) Type C++ Inheritance and Polymorphism in the search bar and view the results.

Videos and Textbooks:
Please click the RESOURCES tab of this website
Click the O'Reilly Online Learning link
Follow the directions to access the website.
(5.) Type C++ Inheritance and Polymorphism in the search bar and view/read the results.

Required Readings

There are three primary characteristics/pillars of object-oriented programming:
(1.) Encapsulation
(2.) Inheritance
(3.) Polymorphism

Let's Begin with a Story (Yes, Mr. C tells stories too!)

A teacher, Mr. C with his three students: Student $1$, Student $2$, and Student $3$
The students are dual enrolled high school students.
They are bold and smart.
They are taking a Computer Science course with Mr. C

Teacher: Today, we shall be discussing Inheritance
Student $1$: Is this a Zoology class?
Teacher: Why do you ask?
Student $2$: Why do you answer questions with questions?
Teacher: Typical of Nigerians :-)
It saves you from getting into trouble.
Student $1$: I asked because we are studying Genetics.
Teacher: Interesting.
So, we can use some interdisciplinary knowledge from both courses.
My first question is:
What did you inherit from your parents: Dad, Mom, Grand Dad, Grand Mom (Father's side), Grand Dad, Grand Mom (Mother's side), several generations on both sides, atavism?
Student $2$: What do you mean by atavism
Student $3$: It's a reappearance of an ancestral trait.
For example: Remember those Nigerian parents (both of them are Black) that gave birth to a white baby girl?
One of the reasons the doctors gave was dormant white genes which entered both of the female's parents' families long ago.
That is atavism.
You can read the story online. Wait: here is the link from CBS News: (https://www.cbsnews.com/news/white-baby-shocks-black-parents-medically-possible/)
Student $1$: CBS News? LOL
Teacher: Hey, do not say what you want to say.
This is not politics.
Student $1$: And what if I do?
Student $3$: Some other news sources have it as well.
Teacher: Okay guys, you have not answered my question.
Student $2$: Well, as you can see: I have blonde hair and blue eyes.
But surprisingly, my parents have brown hair and brown eyes.
Why is that?
Student $1$: Your parents have the dominant brown hair and brown eyes genes and the recessive blond hair and blue eyes genes.
They passed those recessive genes to you.
Student $2$: Interesting.
But, if I want my children to have those dominant brown hair and brown eyes genes, what should I do?
Student $1$: Let me just invite you to our Biology course so you ask those questions.
I am still learning.
But, just pray for it. Do not do anything to try to disrupt nature.
Teacher: Okay, get back on track to my questions.
Student $3$: I inherited intelligence from my parents.
Student $1$: So, we had this argument in class: Is intelligence acquired or inherited?
Is it by nature or nature or both?
Teacher: Intelligence is both nature and nurture though it is more of nurture.
Student $1$: What are your reasons, Sir?
Teacher: You have two Nigerian parents, did not attend school did not have any formal education; yet their children are the best graduating medical students.
Student $1$: Well, the fact that they did not attend school does not mean that they are not intelligent. Someone who is not literate can still be intelligent. I think intelligence is wisdom.
Student $3$: I inherited tallness from my Mom.
My Mom is tall and my Dad is of average height.
Teacher: I am still waiting for your answer.
Student $1$: Who? Me?
Teacher: Yes of course.
Student $1$: I think I inherited my temperament from my Dad.
Teacher: Bold. Reactive (not proactive). High activity level. Persistent.
Student $1$: You got it.
But, you do know environmental factors contribute as well.
Teacher: Yes I know.
Just like Intelligence, Temperament is both nature and nurture. However, it is more of nurture.
Student $1$: Now, back to you, Mr. C
What did you inherit from your parents?
Teacher: Oh come on.
Can't you see it?
Everyone is looking at me.
Student $1$: Meaning?
That I am a very handsome man.
Everyone starts smiling/laughing
It's good to laugh and be relaxed before we start learning some codes.
Student $1$: We are looking at you because you are the professor.
Teacher: And because I am very handsome.
Alright, B2B...
Everyone says: Back to Business
So as you can see (based on our discussion), one can inherit traits from the Dad, Mom, Mom and Dad, grandparents, or even ancestral traits.

So far:
In your previous course: the Beginner's course; we discussed
(1.) Method/Function

In the previous modules for this course, we discussed:
(1.) A class
(2.) Constructor
(3.) Property
Say that we created a class: Class $A$ with some members: fields, properties, and methods
We want to create another class: Class $B$ and use the members from class $A$ and also use additional members
Keep in mind that class members includes fields, properties, and methods.
Rather than create Class $B$ and define all those members from Class $A$, we can create Class $B$ as a child of Class $A$ so that it inherit the class members from Class $A$ and then create the additional members for it.
We can also create Class $C$ to inherit some of the properties of Class $A$ and also some of the properties of Class $B$
So, you can see it this way:
Class $A$ as the parent
Class $B$ as the child
Class $C$ as the grandchild
Remember one inherits the genes of grandparents and great grand parents and so on and so forth. The amount depends on the percentage or fraction. (which you discuss in Genetics).
Welcome to Inheritance.
Inheritance is the ability of a class to inherit the members of another class
The class whose members are inherited from another class is known as the base class or parent class or superclass
The class that inherits the class members from another class is known as the derived class or child class or extended class or subclass.
So, this is seen as:
Base class and Derived class OR
Base class and Extended class OR
Parent class and Child class OR
Superclass and Subclass (Compare to Superset and Subset in Algebra)
(Please get used to these words because we shall be using them interchangeably.)
Superclass and Subclass are preferred terms for the Java programming language.

The main purpose of inheritance is to reuse, extend, and modify the class members of a parent class by the child class.
It allows one to define a child class that reuses (inherits), extends, or modifies/overrides the behavior of a parent class.

When a class is derived from a base class, the derived class implicitly gains all the members of the base class, besides its constructors, destrcutors, assignment opeartor members, friends, and private members.
The derived class reuses the code in the base class without having to reimplement it.
You can add more members in the derived class.
The derived class extends the functionality of the base class.

Notable Notes on C++ Inheritance

(1.) The inheritance of a base class from a derived class is achieved using the colon symbol.
The syntax is:

                       	public class DerivedClass : public BaseClass
                    

(2.) C++ supports multiple inheritance of base classes.
In other words, C++ allows a derived class to have more than one direct base class. This is one of the advantages C++ has over C#.
In object-programming programming, C++ supports multiple inheritance while C# only supports a single inheritance.
Single Inheritance is defined as the inheritance of a single direct base class by a derived class
Multiple Inheritance is defined as the inheritance of more than one base class by a derived class

(4.) C++ supports transitive inheritance
This is also known as multilevel inheritance
Recall the Transitive Rule of Inequalities:

$ (I.)\:\:If\:\: c \lt d \:\:and\:\: d \lt e, \:\:then\:\: c \lt e ...Transitive\:\:Rule \\[3ex] (II.)\:\:If\:\: c \gt d \:\:and\:\: d \gt e, \:\:then\:\: c \gt e ...Transitive\:\:Rule \\[3ex] $ and the Transitive Property of Real Numbers:
(I.) $If\:\:c = d\:\:and\:\:d = e\:\:then\:\:c = e \\[3ex]$ Similarly:
If Class $B$ inherits from Class $A$ and
Class $C$ inherits from Class $B$, then
Class $C$ also inherits from Class $A$.
So, you can see it this way:
Class $A$ as the parent
Class $B$ as the child
Class $C$ as the grandchild
Because the grandchild inherits from the child who inherits from the parent, the grandchild also inherits from the parent.

(4.) C++ supports polymorphism
Literally, poly means many and morphs means forms; so polymorphism means many forms
We shall discuss Polymorphism later in this module.
For now, just know that two or more child classes can inherit class members from the same parent class.

(5.) C++ supports the inheritance of abstract classes. We shall discuss this concept later in the module.

(6.) Inheritance is demonstrated by creating an instance of the derived class (object of the derived class) and using that object to perform actions on the base class and the derived class.
Typically, we do not demonstrate inheritance by creating an object of the base class.

(7.) All class members of the base class can be inherited by the derived class except it's:
(a.) constructors and destructor.
(b.) assignment operator members (operator=)
(c.) private members (members declared with the private access specifier)
(d.) friends

Let us do some examples.
Example $1$: Mixed Dog Breed: Golden Dox
The Golden Dox is a mixed breed between the Golden Retriever and the Dachshund
It is the mutt/cross breed/mixed breed of a small dog (dachshund) and a large dog (golden retriever)
What would you expect?

Physical features of the Dachshund
(1.) Elongated/long body
(2.) Short, stubby legs
(3.) Long floppy ears
(4.) Feisty personality

Physical features of the Golden Retriever
(1.) Medium-length body
(2.) Broad head.
(3.) Triangle-shaped floppy ears.
(4.) Very-friendly personality
(5.) Thick muzzles

Physical features of the Golden Dox (seems like the head of the Golden Retriever and the body of a Dachshund)
(1.) Long body (inherited from Dachshund)
(2.) Short, stubby legs (inherited from Dachshund)
(3.) Floppy ears (inherited from both dogs: Dachshund and Golden Retriever)
(4.) Friendly personality (inherited from Golden Retriever)
(5.) Broad head (inherited from Golden Retriever)
(6.) Long muzzle (add as an extension to the child class)

Let us start with Biology
Let us write programs that illustrate the inheritance of two golden doxes: one from the dachshund and the other from the golden retriever.
Remember the purpose of inheritance. We shall modify the features/traits as needed.
We shall have three files (my preference because I like to separate each program. You may write everything in one program if you wish): the main cpp file that has the main method: Inheritance.cpp; and two header files: BaseClass.h and DerivedClass.h
We shall add more files as we demonstrate more examples.
There are several ways we can demonstrate inheritance.
Let us review some of those ways.
Please review the images and the comments.

First Approach to Inheritance





Second Approach to Inheritance





Third Approach to Inheritance (My preference)
I prefer this approach.
You will understand the reason when we do math calculations.





One of the advantages that C++ has over C# as regards inheritance is that in C++, a child class can inherit from both parents.
In other words, C++ supports multiple inheritances of base classes
A comma is used to separate each inherited base class
Please do not forget to include the access specifier for each inherited base class.
The syntax for multiple inheritance is:

                        // First Base Class
                        class BaseClass1 
                        {
                            ...
                        }
                                        
                        // Second Base Class
                        class BaseClass2 
                        {
                            ...
                        }
                                        
                        // Third Base Class
                        class BaseClass3 
                        {
                            ...
                        }
                                        
                        // Derived Class
                        class DerivedClass : public BaseClass1, public BaseClass2, public BaseClass3 
                        {
                            ...
                        }
                    

Let us demonstrate multiple inheritance with the Golden Dox.
In this case, we shall just include the applicable features from the parents as is, and add the only extension (Number 6.)
Please review the screenshots and the comments.

Multiple Inheritance






Next, we need to demonstrate Multilevel Inheritance.
Let us do it with Geometry

A Quadrilateral is any four-sided polygon.
Examples include: Square, Rectangle, Rhombus, Parallelogram, Kite, and Trapezoid
Properties of a Quadrilateral are:
(1.) It has four sides.
(2.) It has four vertices.
(3.) The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is $360^\circ$

A Parallelogram is a quadrilateral that has these properties:
(1.) Opposite sides are equal.
(2.) Opposite sides are parallel.
(3.) Opposite interior angles are equal.

A Square is a quadrilateral that has these properties:
(1.) All four sides are equal.
(2.) Opposite sides are parallel.
(3.) All angles are equal.

So, as we can see: a Square is also a Parallelogram.
All squares are parallelograms but not all parallelograms are squares.
Similarly, all parallelograms are quadrilaterals but not all quadrilaterals are parallelograms.
That also implies that all squares are quadrilaterals but not all quadrilaterals are squares.

In this context, let us take:
Quadrilateral as the parent
Parallelogram as the child
Square as the grandchild

Please review the screenshots and the comments.

Multilevel Inheritance

Advantages of Inheritance

Let us discuss some advantages of Inheritance.
(1.) Code Reusability: As seen in the previous examples, we reused the class fields of the base class.
Inheritance is like the DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) of programming because some class members of the base class are reused.
Reusability leads to reduced development and maintenance costs.

(2.) Code Extensibility: Inheritance allows for modification and extension of code.
As seen in the previous examples, we modified and extended the fields that was inherited from the base class, in the derived class.

(3.) Creation of Class Libraries: Inheritance facilitates the creation of class libraries.

(4.) Access to protected class members of the base class:
So far, we have:
(a.) Used the public access specifier.
(b.) Used the private access specifier.
Recall that we had to use Property to access a private class field.
But, what about the other access specifier: protected. We have not used it.
We shall use it in this module.
Recall that in the: protected access specifier: Access is limited to the containing class or types derived from the containing class. The class member can be assessed within the class it was created, or in a class that is inherited from the class that it was created.
The protected class members are similar to private class members. However, they can be inherited.
So, we shall be using the protected access specifier for any class member that we want to encapsulate. Please note that: we still need to use Properties to access protected class members because technically, they are still 'private'.
The only difference is that they can be inherited by derived class while private class members cannot be inherited.
So, they will be inherited. But, we shall use Properties (setter and getter) to access them.

Let us demonstate the use of the protected access specifier.
Let us do some math calculations.
Simple Interest and Amount Calculations
Please review Question (5.) and the solution on Solved Examples on Simple Interest website:
(www.finance-calculators.appspot.com/simpleInterestApplications.html)
Let us calculate the simple interest and amount for several customers.
We shall use Inheritance to solve that Question for several students.
We shall make the interest rate of the financial institution and the time to be public, but make the first names of the customers and the principal (sum of money deposited) to be protected.
Please review the screenshots and the comments.